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Nanorobotics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Nanobots)
"Nanobots" redirects here. For the They Might Be Giants album, see
Nanobots (album).
is the
emerging technology field creating machines or
robots whose components are at or close to the scale of a
nanometre (10
−9 meters).
[1][2][3] More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the
nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building
nanorobots, with devices ranging in size from 0.1–10 micrometers and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components.
[4][5] The names
nanobots,
nanoids,
nanites,
nanomachines, or
nanomites have also been used to describe these devices currently under research and development.
[6][7]
Nanomachines are largely in the
research and development phase,
[8] but some primitive
molecular machines and
nanomotors
have been tested. An example is a sensor having a switch approximately
1.5 nanometers across, capable of counting specific molecules in a
chemical sample. The first useful applications of nanomachines might be
in medical technology,
[9] which could be used to identify and destroy cancer cells.
[10][11]
Another potential application is the detection of toxic chemicals, and
the measurement of their concentrations, in the environment.
Rice University has demonstrated a
single-molecule car developed by a chemical process and including
buckyballs for wheels. It is actuated by controlling the environmental temperature and by positioning a
scanning tunneling microscope tip.
Another definition is a robot that allows precision interactions with
nanoscale objects, or can manipulate with nanoscale resolution. Such
devices are more related to
microscopy or
scanning probe microscopy, instead of the description of nanorobots as
molecular machine. Following the microscopy definition even a large apparatus such as an
atomic force microscope
can be considered a nanorobotic instrument when configured to perform
nanomanipulation. For this perspective, macroscale robots or microrobots
that can move with nanoscale precision can also be considered
nanorobots.
Nanorobotics theory
According to
Richard Feynman, it was his former graduate student and collaborator
Albert Hibbs who originally suggested to him (circa 1959) the idea of a
medical use for Feynman's theoretical micromachines (see
nanotechnology).
Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced
in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as
Feynman put it) "swallow the doctor". The idea was incorporated into
Feynman's 1959 essay
There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.[12]
Since nanorobots would be microscopic in size, it would probably be
necessary for very large numbers of them to work together to perform
microscopic and macroscopic tasks. These nanorobot swarms, both those
incapable of
replication (as in
utility fog) and those capable of unconstrained replication in the natural environment (as in
grey goo and its less common variants
[clarification needed]), are found in many science fiction stories, such as the
Borg nanoprobes in
Star Trek and
The Outer Limits episode
The New Breed.
Some proponents of nanorobotics, in reaction to the
grey goo
scenarios that they earlier helped to propagate, hold the view that
nanorobots capable of replication outside of a restricted factory
environment do not form a necessary part of a purported productive
nanotechnology, and that the process of self-replication, if it were
ever to be developed, could be made inherently safe. They further assert
that their current plans for developing and using molecular
manufacturing do not in fact include free-foraging replicators.
[13][14]
The most detailed theoretical discussion of nanorobotics, including
specific design issues such as sensing, power communication, navigation,
manipulation, locomotion, and onboard computation, has been presented
in the medical context of
nanomedicine by
Robert Freitas. Some of these discussions remain at the level of unbuildable generality and do not approach the level of detailed engineering.
Approaches
Biochip
The joint use of
nanoelectronics,
photolithography, and new
biomaterials
provides a possible approach to manufacturing nanorobots for common
medical applications, such as for surgical instrumentation, diagnosis
and drug delivery.
[15][16][17] This method for manufacturing on nanotechnology scale is currently in use in the electronics industry.
[18]
So, practical nanorobots should be integrated as nanoelectronics
devices, which will allow tele-operation and advanced capabilities for
medical instrumentation.
[19][20]
Nubots
Main article:
DNA machine
Nubot is an abbreviation for "nucleic acid robot." Nubots are organic molecular machines at the nanoscale.
[21]
DNA structure can provide means to assemble 2D and 3D nanomechanical
devices. DNA based machines can be activated using small molecules,
proteins and other molecules of DNA.
[22][23][24]
Biological circuit gates based on DNA materials have been engineered as
molecular machines to allow in-vitro drug delivery for targeted health
problems.
[25] Such material based systems would work most closely to smart biomaterial drug system delivery,
[26] while not allowing precise in vivo teleoperation of such engineered prototypes.
Surface-bound systems
A number of reports have demonstrated the attachment of
synthetic molecular motors to surfaces.
[27][28]
These primitive nanomachines have been shown to undergo machine-like
motions when confined to the surface of a macroscopic material. The
surface anchored motors could potentially be used to move and position
nanoscale materials on a surface in the manner of a conveyor belt.
Positional nanoassembly
Nanofactory Collaboration,
[29] founded by
Robert Freitas and
Ralph Merkle in 2000 and involving 23 researchers from 10 organizations and 4 countries, focuses on developing a practical research agenda
[30] specifically aimed at developing positionally-controlled diamond
mechanosynthesis and a
diamondoid nanofactory that would have the capability of building diamondoid medical nanorobots.
Bacteria-based
This approach proposes the use of biological microorganisms, like the
bacterium Escherichia coli.
[31]
Thus the model uses a flagellum for propulsion purposes.
Electromagnetic fields normally control the motion of this kind of
biological integrated device.
[32] Chemists at the University of Nebraska have created a humidity gauge by fusing a bacteria to a silicone computer chip.
[33]
Virus-based
Retroviruses can be retrained to attach to
cells and replace
DNA. They go through a process called
reverse transcription to deliver
genetic packaging in a
vector.
[34] Usually, these devices are Pol – Gag
genes of the
virus for the
Capsid and Delivery system. This process is called
retroviral Gene Therapy, having the ability to re-engineer
cellular DNA by usage of
viral vectors.
[35] This approach has appeared in the form of
Retroviral,
Adenoviral, and
Lentiviral gene delivery systems.
[36] These Gene Therapy vectors have been used in cats to send genes into the genetic modified animal "
GMO" causing it display the trait.
[37]
Open technology
A document with a proposal on nanobiotech development using
open technology approaches has been addressed to the
United Nations General Assembly.
[38] According to the document sent to the
UN, in the same way that
Open Source has in recent years accelerated the development of
computer systems, a similar approach should benefit the society at large and accelerate nanorobotics development. The use of
nanobiotechnology should be established as a human heritage for the coming generations, and developed as an
open technology based on
ethical practices for
peaceful purposes. Open technology is stated as a fundamental key for such an aim.
Nanorobot race
In the same ways that
technology development had the
space race and
nuclear arms race, a race for nanorobots is occurring.
[39][40][41][42][43] There is plenty of ground allowing nanorobots to be included among the
emerging technologies.
[44] Some of the reasons are that large corporations, such as
General Electric,
Hewlett-Packard,
Synopsys,
Northrop Grumman and
Siemens have been recently working in the development and research of nanorobots;
[45][46][47][48][49] surgeons are getting involved and starting to propose ways to apply nanorobots for common medical procedures;
[50]
universities and research institutes were granted funds by government
agencies exceeding $2 billion towards research developing nanodevices
for medicine;
[51][52]
bankers are also strategically investing with the intent to acquire
beforehand rights and royalties on future nanorobots commercialization.
[53] Some aspects of nanorobot litigation and related issues linked to monopoly have already arisen.
[54][55][56]
A large number of patents has been granted recently on nanorobots, done
mostly for patent agents, companies specialized solely on building
patent portfolio, and lawyers. After a long series of patents and
eventually litigations, see for example the
Invention of Radio or about the
War of Currents, emerging fields of technology tend to become a
monopoly, which normally is dominated by large corporations.
[57]
Potential applications
Nanomedicine
Main article:
Nanomedicine
Potential applications for nanorobotics in
medicine include early diagnosis and targeted drug-delivery for
cancer,
[58][59][60] biomedical instrumentation,
[61] surgery,
[62][63] pharmacokinetics,
[10] monitoring of
diabetes,
[64][65][66] and health care.
In such plans, future
medical nanotechnology
is expected to employ nanorobots injected into the patient to perform
work at a cellular level. Such nanorobots intended for use in medicine
should be non-replicating, as replication would needlessly increase
device complexity, reduce reliability, and interfere with the medical
mission.
Nanotechnology provides a wide range of new technologies for developing customized solutions that optimize the delivery of
pharmaceutical products. Today, harmful side effects of treatments such as
chemotherapy are commonly a result of drug delivery methods that don't pinpoint their intended target cells accurately.
[67] Researchers at
Harvard and
MIT, however, have been able to attach special
RNA
strands, measuring nearly 10 nm in diameter, to nano-particles, filling
them with a chemotherapy drug. These RNA strands are attracted to
cancer cells. When the nanoparticle encounters a cancer cell, it adheres to it, and releases the drug into the cancer cell.
[68]
This directed method of drug delivery has great potential for treating
cancer patients while avoiding negative effects (commonly associated
with improper drug delivery).
[67][69]
The first demonstration of nanomotors operating in living organism was
carried out in 2014 at University of California, San Diego.
[70] MRI-guided
nanocapsules are one potential precursor to nanorobots.
[71]
Another useful application of nanorobots is assisting in the repair of tissue cells alongside
white blood cells.
[72] The recruitment of inflammatory cells or white blood cells (which include
neutrophils,
lymphocytes,
monocytes and
mast cells) to the affected area is the first response of tissues to injury.
[73]
Because of their small size nanorobots could attach themselves to the
surface of recruited white cells, to squeeze their way out through the
walls of
blood vessels
and arrive at the injury site, where they can assist in the tissue
repair process. Certain substances could possibly be utilized to
accelerate the recovery.
The science behind this mechanism is quite complex. Passage of cells across the blood
endothelium,
a process known as transmigration, is a mechanism involving engagement
of cell surface receptors to adhesion molecules, active force exertion
and
dilation of the vessel walls and physical deformation of the migrating cells. By attaching themselves to migrating
inflammatory
cells, the robots can in effect “hitch a ride” across the blood
vessels, bypassing the need for a complex transmigration mechanism of
their own.
[72]
In the United States,
FDA currently regulates
nanotechnology on the basis of size.
[74] The FDA also regulates that which acts by chemical means as a drug, and that which acts by physical means as a device.
[75]
Single molecules can also be used as Turing machines, like their larger
paper tape counterparts, capable of universal computation and exerting
physical (or chemical) forces as a result of that computation. Safety
systems are being developed so that if a drug payload were to be
accidentally released, the payload would either be inert or another drug
would be then released to counteract the first. Toxicological testing
becomes convolved with
software
validation in such circumstances.With new advances in nanotechnology
these small devices are being created with the ability to self-regulate
and be ‘smarter’ than previous generations. As
nanotechnology becomes more complex, how will regulatory agencies distinguish a drug from a device?
[75]
Drug molecules must undergo slower and more expensive testing (for
example, preclinical toxicological testing) than devices, and the
regulatory pathways for devices are simpler than for drugs. Perhaps
smartness, if smart enough, will someday be used to justify a device
classification for a single molecule
nanomachine.
Devices are generally approved more quickly than drugs, so device
classification could be beneficial to patients and manufacturers.
References
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