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3D printing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
3D printing, also known as
additive manufacturing (
AM), refers to processes used to create a
three-dimensional object
[1] in which layers of material are formed under
computer control to create an object.
[2] Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and are produced using digital model data from a
3D model or another electronic data source such as an
Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file.
The
futurologist Jeremy Rifkin[3] claimed that 3D printing signals the beginning of a
third industrial revolution,
[4] succeeding the
production line assembly that dominated manufacturing starting in the late 19th century.
The term "3D printing" originally referred to a process that deposits a
binder material onto a powder bed with
inkjet printer
heads layer by layer. More recently, the term is being used in popular
vernacular to encompass a wider variety of additive manufacturing
techniques. United States and global
technical standards use the official term
additive manufacturing
for this broader sense. ISO/ASTM52900-15 defines seven categories of AM
processes within its meaning: binder jetting, directed energy
deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion,
sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization.
[5]
Terminology and methods
Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s.
[6]
In 1981, Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute
invented two additive methods for fabricating three-dimensional plastic
models with photo-hardening
thermoset polymer, where the
UV exposure area is controlled by a
mask pattern or a scanning fiber transmitter.
[7][8]
On July 16, 1984
Alain Le Méhauté, Olivier de Witte, and Jean Claude André filed their patent for the
stereolithography process.
[9]
The application of the French inventors was abandoned by the French
General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and CILAS (The Laser
Consortium).
[10] The claimed reason was "for lack of business perspective".
[11]
Three weeks later in 1984,
Chuck Hull of
3D Systems Corporation
[12] filed his own patent for a
stereolithography fabrication system, in which layers are added by curing
photopolymers with
ultraviolet light lasers.
Hull defined the process as a "system for generating three-dimensional
objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be
formed,"
[13][14]. Hull's contribution was the
STL (Stereolithography) file format and the digital slicing and infill strategies common to many processes today.
The technology used by most 3D printers to date--especially hobbyist and consumer-oriented models--is
fused deposition modeling, a special application of plastic
extrusion, developed in 1988 by
S. Scott Crump and commercialized by his company
Stratasys, which marketed its first FDM machine in 1992.
The term
3D printing originally referred to a powder bed process employing standard and custom
inkjet print heads, developed at
MIT in 1993 and commercialized by
Z Corporation.
The year 1993 also saw the start of a company called
Solidscape,
introducing a high-precision polymer jet fabrication system with
soluble support structures, (categorized as a "dot-on-dot" technique).
AM processes for
metal sintering or melting (such as
selective laser sintering,
direct metal laser sintering, and
selective laser melting) usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. Most metal parts are still produced by
casting,
fabrication,
stamping, and
machining, but by the mid-1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at
Stanford and
Carnegie Mellon University, including microcasting
[15] and sprayed materials.
[16] By 2010s, metal, end-use parts such as engine brackets
[17] and large nuts
[18] grown (either before or instead of machining) in
job production rather than
obligately being machined from
bar stock or plate.
As methods matured, sacrificial support materials and techniques become more common, enabling new object geometries.
[19]
The
umbrella term additive manufacturing gained wider currency in the
decade of the 2000s.
[20] During this decade, the term
subtractive manufacturing appeared as a
retronym for the large family of machining processes with metal removal as their common theme. In this time frame, the term
3D printing referred primarily to fused deposition, polymer jetting, and other technologies, while the broader technical term
additive manufacturing found use in metalworking, production, and technical standards contexts. (The term
subtractive manufacturing did not replace the term
machining, instead
complementing finding use in technical and marketing context when contrasting
machining and other material removal techniques with
additive manufacturing.)
By the early 2010s, the terms
3D printing and
additive manufacturing had evolved
senses
in which they became alternate umbrella terms for AM technologies, one
being used as a popular term by enthusiast communities and the media,
and the other used by industry, government, and global technical
standards organizations.
Other terms used as synonyms,
hyponyms, and hypernyms to
additive manufacturing include
layered fabrication,
desktop manufacturing,
rapid manufacturing [a successor to
rapid prototyping], and
on-demand manufacturing (which echoes
on-demand printing).
Agile tooling
is a term used to describe modular methods for design and production of
tooling by additive manufacturing or 3D printing methods to enable
rapid
prototyping and iteration of tooling and fixtures. It can be used in
hydro-forming,
stamping,
injection molding, and other manufacturing processes.
As technology matured, several authors had begun to speculate that 3D printing could aid in
sustainable development in the developing world.
[21][22][23]
General principles
Modeling
3D printable models may be created with a
computer-aided design (CAD) package, via a
3D scanner, or by a plain
digital camera and
photogrammetry software.
3D printed models created with CAD result in reduced errors and can be
corrected before printing, allowing verification in the design of the
object before it is printed.
[24]
CAD model used for 3D printing
The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D
computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D
scanning is a process of collecting digital data on the shape and
appearance of a real object, creating a digital model based on it.
Printing
Before printing a 3D model from an
STL file, it must first be examined for errors. Most
CAD applications produce errors in output STL files:
[25][26] holes, faces normals, self-intersections, noise shells or manifold errors.
[27] A step in the STL generation known as "repair" fixes such problems in the original model.
[28][29] Generally STLs that have been produced from a model obtained through
3D scanning often have more of these errors.
[30]
This is due to how 3D scanning works-as it is often by point to point
acquisition, reconstruction will include errors in most cases.
[31]
Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by a piece of
software called a "slicer," which converts the model into a series of
thin layers and produces a
G-code file containing instructions tailored to a specific type of 3D printer (
FDM printers).
[citation needed]
This G-code file can then be printed with 3D printing client software
(which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during
the 3D printing process).
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in
dots per inch (dpi) or
micrometers (µm). Typical layer thickness is around 100
µm (250
DPI), although some machines can print layers as thin as 16 µm (1,600 DPI).
[32] X-Y resolution is comparable to that of
laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100 µm (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.
[citation needed]
Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere
from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the
size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce
this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the
type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced
simultaneously.
[33]
Traditional techniques like
injection moulding can be less expensive for manufacturing
polymer
products in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster,
more flexible and less expensive when producing relatively small
quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development
teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop
size printer.
[34]
Seemingly
paradoxic, more complex objects can be cheaper for 3D printing production than less complex objects.
Finishing
Though
the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications,
printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard
resolution and then removing material
[35] with a higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision.
Some printable polymers such as
ABS, allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor processes
[36] based on
acetone or similar solvents.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple
materials in the course of constructing parts. These techniques are able
to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and
would not necessarily require painting.
Some printing techniques require internal supports to be built for
overhanging features during construction. These supports must be
mechanically removed or dissolved upon completion of the print.
All of the commercialized metal 3D printers involve cutting the metal
component off the metal substrate after deposition. A new process for
the
GMAW 3D printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove
aluminum[37] or
steel.
[38]
Processes and printers
Schematic representation of the 3D printing technique known as Fused Filament Fabrication; a filament a) of plastic material is fed through a heated moving head b) that melts and extrudes it depositing it, layer after layer, in the desired shape c). A moving platform e) lowers after each layer is deposited. For this kind of technology additional vertical support structures d) are needed to sustain overhanging parts
A timelapse video of a robot model (logo of
Make magazine) being printed using FDM on a RepRapPro Fisher printer.
A large number of additive processes are available. The main
differences between processes are in the way layers are deposited to
create parts and in the materials that are used. Each method has its own
advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies offer a choice of
powder and polymer for the material used to build the object.
[39]
Others sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the
build material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations
in choosing a machine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of
the printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and color
capabilities.
[40]
Printers that work directly with metals are generally expensive.
However less expensive printers can be used to make a mold, which is
then used to make metal parts.
[41]
Some methods melt or soften the material to produce the layers. In
Fused filament fabrication, also known as
Fused deposition modeling
(FDM), the model or part is produced by extruding small beads or
streams of material which harden immediately to form layers. A filament
of
thermoplastic, metal wire, or other material is fed into an
extrusion nozzle head (
3D printer extruder),
which heats the material and turns the flow on and off. FDM is somewhat
restricted in the variation of shapes that may be fabricated. Another
technique fuses parts of the layer and then moves upward in the working
area, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until
the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support
overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the
need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece.
[42] Laser sintering techniques include
selective laser sintering, with both metals and polymers, and
direct metal laser sintering.
[43] Selective laser melting
does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will
completely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully
dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical properties
similar to those of conventional manufactured metals.
Electron beam melting is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g.
titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum.
[44][45] Another method consists of an
inkjet 3D printing system, which creates the model one layer at a time by spreading a layer of powder (
plaster, or
resins) and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an inkjet-like process. With
laminated object manufacturing, thin layers are cut to shape and joined together.
Schematic representation of Stereolithography; a light-emitting device a) (laser or DLP) selectively illuminate the transparent bottom c) of a tank b) filled with a liquid photo-polymerizing resin; the solidified resin d) is progressively dragged up by a lifting platform e)
Other methods cure liquid materials using different sophisticated technologies, such as
stereolithography.
Photopolymerization is primarily used in stereolithography to produce a solid part from a liquid. Inkjet printer systems like the
Objet PolyJet system spray
photopolymer
materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30 µm)
until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer is
cured
with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can
be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. Ultra-small
features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in
multiphoton
photopolymerisation. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation,
the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser was
focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of
under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with
moving and interlocked parts.
[46] Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using
LEDs.
[47]
In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography, a 3D digital model is
sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a
two-dimensional mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a
photocurable liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin
to cure it in the shape of the layer.
[48] Continuous liquid interface production begins with a pool of liquid
photopolymer resin. Part of the pool bottom is transparent to
ultraviolet light
(the "window"), which causes the resin to solidify. The object rises
slowly enough to allow resin to flow under and maintain contact with the
bottom of the object.
[49]
In powder-fed directed-energy deposition, a high-power laser is used to
melt metal powder supplied to the focus of the laser beam. The powder
fed directed energy process is similar to Selective Laser Sintering, but
the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the
part at that moment.
[50][51]
As of October 2012, additive manufacturing systems were on the market
that ranged from $2,000 to $500,000 in price and were employed in
industries including aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and
medical replacements, among many others. For example,
General Electric uses the high-end model to build parts for
turbines.
[52]
Many of these systems are used for rapid prototyping, before mass
production methods are employed. Higher education has proven to be a
major buyer of desktop and professional 3D printers which industry
experts generally view as a positive indicator.
[53] Libraries around the world have also become locations to house smaller 3D printers for educational and community access.
[54]
Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable
3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this work has been driven by
and targeted at
DIY/
Maker/enthusiast/
early adopter communities, with additional ties to the academic and
hacker communities.
[55]
Applications
The
Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial
KUKA robots.
3D printed human skull from computed computer tomography data
The earliest application of additive manufacturing was on the
toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example,
rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants, and its mission was to reduce the
lead time
and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was
earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods such as CNC milling,
turning, and precision grinding.
[56] In the 2010s, additive manufacturing entered
production to a much greater extent.
Additive manufacturing of food is being developed by squeezing out
food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of
foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and flat
foods such as crackers, pasta,
[57] and pizza.
[58][59]
3D printing has entered the world of clothing, with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed
bikinis, shoes, and dresses.
[60]
In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and
manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of
American football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes
for athletes.
[60][61]
3D printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer
grade eyewear with on-demand custom fit and styling (although they
cannot print the lenses). On-demand customization of glasses is possible
with rapid prototyping.
[62]
In cars, trucks, and aircraft, AM is beginning to transform both (1)
unibody and
fuselage design and production and (2)
powertrain design and production. For example:
AM's impact on firearms involves two dimensions: new manufacturing
methods for established companies, and new possibilities for the making
of
do-it-yourself firearms. In 2012, the US-based group
Defense Distributed disclosed plans to design a working plastic
3D printed firearm "that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer."
[71][72]
After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised
regarding the effects that 3D printing and widespread consumer-level
CNC machining
[73][74] may have on
gun control effectiveness.
[75][76][77][78]
Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a history
beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical modeling for bony
reconstructive surgery planning.
[79]
Patient-matched implants were a natural extension of this work, leading
to truly personalized implants that fit one unique individual.
[80]
Virtual planning of surgery and guidance using 3D printed, personalized
instruments have been applied to many areas of surgery including total
joint replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with great
success.
[clarification needed][81] One example of this is the bioresorbable trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchomalacia
[82]
developed at the University of Michigan. The use of additive
manufacturing for serialized production of orthopedic implants (metals)
is also increasing due to the ability to efficiently create porous
surface structures that facilitate osseointegration. The hearing aid and
dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future
development using the custom 3D printing technology.
[83]
In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the
face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road
accident.
[84] As of 2012, 3D
bio-printing technology has been studied by
biotechnology
firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications
in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In
this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or
sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures
including vascular systems.
[85] Recently, a heart-on-chip has been created which matches properties of cells.
[86]
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing technology.
[87]
As of 2012, domestic 3D printing was mainly practiced by hobbyists and
enthusiasts. However, little was used for practical household
applications, for example, ornamental objects. Some practical examples
include a working clock
[88] and
gears printed for home woodworking machines among other purposes.
[89] Web sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include backscratchers, coat hooks, door knobs, etc.
[90]
3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the classroom.
[91][92][93] Some authors have claimed that 3D printers offer an unprecedented "revolution" in
STEM education.
[94] The evidence for such claims comes from both the low cost ability for
rapid prototyping in the classroom by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from
open hardware designs forming
open-source labs.
[95] Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment.
[95][96]
In the last several years 3D printing has been intensively used by in the
cultural heritage field for preservation, restoration and dissemination purposes.
[97] Many Europeans and North American Museums have purchased 3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces of their relics.
[98] The
Metropolitan Museum of Art and the
British Museum have started using their 3D printers to create museum souvenirs that are available in the museum shops.
[99]
Other museums, like the National Museum of Military History and Varna
Historical Museum, have gone further and sell through the online
platform
Threeding digital models of their artifacts, created using
Artec 3D scanners, in 3D printing friendly file format, which everyone can 3D print at home.
[100]
3D printed soft
actuators
is a growing application of 3D printing technology which has found its
place in the 3D printing applications. These soft actuators are being
developed to deal with soft structures and organs especially in
biomedical sectors and where the interaction between human and robot is
inevitable. The majority of the existing soft actuators are fabricated
by conventional methods that require manual fabrication of devices, post
processing/assembly, and lengthy iterations until maturity in the
fabrication is achieved. To avoid the tedious and time-consuming aspects
of the current fabrication processes, researchers are exploring an
appropriate manufacturing approach for effective fabrication of soft
actuators. Thus, 3D printed soft actuators are introduced to
revolutionise the design and fabrication of soft actuators with custom
geometrical, functional, and control properties in a faster and
inexpensive approach. They also enable incorporation of all actuator
components into a single structure eliminating the need to use external
joints,
adhesives, and
fasteners.
[101]
Legal aspects
Intellectual property
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries where many legal regimes, including
patents,
industrial design rights,
copyright, and
trademark may apply. However, there is not much
jurisprudence
to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and
individuals and hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for
personal use, for non-profit distribution, or for sale.
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of
the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the
printed item. To be allowed to do these things, where an active
intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the
owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price.
However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard
limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial' use of
inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual
property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such
private, non-commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
Patents cover inventions including processes, machines, manufactures,
and compositions of matter and have a finite duration which varies
between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application.
Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling
such a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.
[102]
Copyright covers an expression
[103] in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years thereafter.
[104]
If someone makes a statue, they may have copyright on the look of that
statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute
designs to print an identical or similar statue.
When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional
(patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the
courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be
separated from the functional aspects of the item.
[104]
In other countries the law and the courts may apply a different
approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be
registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding
that, in case of unauthorized copying, only the non-functional features
may be claimed under design law whereas any technical features could
only be claimed if covered by a valid patent.
Gun legislation and administration
The US
Department of Homeland Security and the
Joint Regional Intelligence Center
released a memo stating that "significant advances in three-dimensional
(3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable
files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing
may present public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain
or manufacture 3D printed guns," and that "proposed legislation to ban
3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent their
production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation,
online distribution of these 3D printable files will be as difficult to
control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files."
[105]
Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter than in
the United States, some commentators have said the impact may be more
strongly felt, as alternative firearms are not as easily obtainable.
[106] Officials in the United Kingdom have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their gun control laws.
[107] Europol
stated that criminals have access to other sources of weapons, but
noted that as the technology improved the risks of an effect would
increase.
[108][109] Downloads of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.
[110][111]
Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet of gun
plans has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread
distribution of
DeCSS which enabled DVD
ripping.
[112][113][114][115] After the US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via
The Pirate Bay and other file sharing sites.
[116] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers, to prevent them being used for printing guns.
[117][118]
3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be
futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on
free speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor
Hod Lipson suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.
[119][120][121][122][123][124][125]
Safety
A video on research done on printer emissions
3D printers have been noted to be an environmental hazard due to them
emitting microscopic particles and chemicals that have been linked to
asthma. A
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) report notes these emissions peaked a few minutes after
printing started and returned to baseline levels 100 minutes after
printing ended. The problem was reduced by using manufacturer-supplied
covers and full enclosures, using proper
ventilation, keeping workers away from the printer while wearing
respirators, turning off the printer if it jammed, and using lower emission printers and filaments
[126]
(It must also be noted that 3D printing drastically reduces the wastage
of material, resulting in less pollution, and is therefore safer for
environment.)
[original research?]
Impact
Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible,
ever-improving
users of all available technologies to remain competitive. Advocates of
additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological
development will counter
globalization,
as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage
in trade to buy products from other people and corporations.
[6]
The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial
production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional
subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.
[127]
Social change
Since
the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated
in some depth about the social and cultural changes that might result
from the advent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing
technology.
[128]
Amongst the more notable ideas to have emerged from these inquiries has
been the suggestion that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter
people's homes, the conventional relationship between the home and the
workplace might get further eroded.
[129]
Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for
businesses to transmit designs for new objects around the globe, so the
need for high-speed freight services might also become less.
[130]
Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be
replicated, it remains to be seen whether changes will be made to
current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property
rights with the new technology widely available.
As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, online social platforms have developed to support the community.
[131]
This includes websites that allow users to access information such as
how to build a 3D printer, as well as social forums that discuss how to
improve 3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well as social
media websites that are dedicated to share 3D models.
[132][133][134]
RepRap is a wiki based website that was created to hold all information
on 3d printing, and has developed into a community that aims to bring
3D printing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such as
Pinshape,
Thingiverse and
MyMiniFactory,
which were created initially to allow users to post 3D files for anyone
to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of sharing 3D files.
These websites have allowed greater social interaction between users,
creating communities dedicated to 3D printing.
Some call attention to the conjunction of
Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and other low-cost manufacturing techniques.
[135][136][137]
The self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be
overcome with the development of economies of scope, and here, society
can play an important role contributing to the raising of the whole
productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainable and
customized productivity.
[135]
Further, it is true that many issues, problems, and threats arise due
to the democratization of the means of production, and especially
regarding the physical ones.
[135]
For instance, the recyclability of advanced nanomaterials is still
questioned; weapons manufacturing could become easier; not to mention
the implications for counterfeiting
[138] and on IP.
[139] It might be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose competitive dynamics were about economies of scale,
Commons-based peer production
3D printing could develop economies of scope. While the advantages of
scale rest on cheap global transportation, the economies of scope share
infrastructure costs (intangible and tangible productive resources),
taking advantage of the capabilities of the fabrication tools.
[135] And following Neil Gershenfeld
[140]
in that "some of the least developed parts of the world need some of
the most advanced technologies," Commons-based peer production and 3D
printing may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but acting
locally in response to certain needs.
Larry Summers
wrote about the "devastating consequences" of 3D printing and other
technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who
perform routine tasks. In his view, "already there are more American men
on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing.
And the trends are all in the wrong direction, particularly for the less
skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence
to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will increase
rapidly in the years ahead." Summers recommends more vigorous
cooperative efforts to address the "myriad devices" (e.g., tax havens,
bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the
holders of great wealth to "avoid paying" income and estate taxes, and
to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring
"great social contributions" in return, including: more vigorous
enforcement of anti-monopoly laws, reductions in "excessive" protection
for intellectual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing
schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake in wealth
accumulation, strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements,
improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of financial
regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity, easing of
land-use restrictions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep
rising in value, better training for young people and retraining for
displaced workers, and increased public and private investment in
infrastructure development—e.g., in energy production and
transportation.
[141]
Michael Spence
wrote that "Now comes a … powerful, wave of digital technology that is
replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor
substitution and
disintermediation
has been underway for some time in service sectors—think of ATMs,
online banking, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship
management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is
spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D printing are
displacing labor." In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital
technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D
printers) and, more important, in creating the software that enables
machines to carry out various tasks. "Once this is achieved, the
marginal cost of the hardware is relatively low (and declines as scale
rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially
zero. With a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront fixed
costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital
technologies] are compelling." Spence believes that, unlike prior
digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of
valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current
wave of digital technologies "is cost reduction via the replacement of
labor." For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it
is "easy to imagine" that production may become "extremely" local and
customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand,
not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that labor, no
matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth
and employment expansion, with labor-intensive, process-oriented
manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will
appear in both developed and developing countries. In his view,
production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and
all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around
digital technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment
and expansion. Spence writes that "the world we are entering is one in
which the most powerful global flows will be ideas and digital capital,
not goods, services, and traditional capital. Adapting to this will
require shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in human
capital), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution."
[142]
Forbes
investment pundits have predicted that 3D printing may lead to a
resurgence of American Manufacturing, citing the small, creative
companies that comprise the current industry landscape, and the lack of
the necessary complex infrastructure in typical outsource markets.
[143]
See also
References
.
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