In
feminism,
rape culture is a concept that links
rape and
sexual violence to the culture of a society,
[1] and in which prevalent
attitudes and practices
normalize, excuse, tolerate, and even condone rape.
[2]
Examples of behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include
victim blaming,
sexual objectification, and trivializing rape. Rape culture has been used to model behavior within social groups, including
prison rape and conflict areas where
war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire countries have also been alleged to be rape cultures.
[3][4][5][6][7]
Although the concept of rape culture is used in
feminist academia,
[8]
there is disagreement over what defines a rape culture and to what
degree a given society meets the criteria to be considered a rape
culture.
[3]
Rape culture has been observed to correlate with other social factors
and behaviors. Research identifies correlation between rape myths,
victim blaming and trivialization of rape with increased incidence of
racism,
homophobia,
ageism,
classism,
religious intolerance, and other forms of
discrimination.
[9][10]
Origins and usage
During the early 1970s, feminists began to engage in
consciousness-raising
efforts to educate the public about the reality of rape. According to
Alexandra Rutherford, "Until the 1970s, most Americans assumed that
rape, incest, and wife-beating rarely happened."
[11] The idea of rape culture was one result of these efforts.
According to the
Encyclopedia of Rape:
- "The term 'rape culture' originated in the 1970s during the second wave feminist movement and is often used by feminists to describe contemporary American culture as a whole."[12] The concept appeared in multiple forms of media during the mid-1970s.
In 1974, the term was used in
Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women[context?], edited by
Noreen Connell and Cassandra Wilson for the
New York Radical Feminists.
[13]
It was one of the first books to include first-person accounts of rape,
which were one reason for rape entering the public view.
[14]
In the book, the group stated that "our ultimate goal is to eliminate
rape and that goal cannot be achieved without a revolutionary
transformation of our society."
[15]
Sociology professor
Joyce E. Williams traces the origin and first usage of the term
rape culture[16] to the 1975 documentary film
Rape Culture produced and directed by
Margaret Lazarus and
Renner Wunderlich for
Cambridge Documentary Films. Professor Williams says that the film "takes credit for first defining the concept".
[16] The film discussed rape of both men and women in the context of a larger cultural normalization of rape.
[17][18] In 2000, Lazarus stated that she believed the movie was the first use of the term.
[19] The film featured the work of the DC Rape Crisis Centre in co-operation with Prisoners Against Rape, Inc.
[20]
It included interviews with rapists and victims as well as prominent
anti-rape activists like feminist philosopher and theologian
Mary Daly and author and artist
Emily Culpepper.
The film also explored the mass media, how film-makers, song writers,
writers, and magazines perpetuated attitudes towards rape.
[18]
In a 1992 paper, in the
Journal of Social Issues,
entitled "A Feminist Redefinition of Rape and Sexual Assault:
Historical Foundations and Change", Patricia Donat and John D'Emilio
suggested that the term originated as "rape-supportive culture"
[21] in
Susan Brownmiller's 1975 book
Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. Brownmiller, a member of the New York
Radical Feminists, showed how both academia and the general public ignored the existence of rape.
[22] The book is considered a "landmark" work on feminism and sexual violence and one of the pillars of modern rape studies.
[23]
SlutWalk
SlutWalk
is a feminist organization that formed in response to a public
statement made by Toronto police officer Michael Sanguinetti on January
24, 2011.
[24] While addressing the issue of
campus rape at a
York University safety forum, Sanguinetti stated that "women should avoid dressing like sluts in order not to be victimized."
[25]
The SlutWalk and
Besharmi Morcha
movements are credited with popularizing the term via certain mass
media reports about the protesters in the English-speaking Western
media.
[26]
The rallies aim to raise awareness of rape culture—which they define as
a culture where "sexual violence is both made to be invisible and
inevitable"—and to end
slut-shaming and victim blaming.
[27] [28]
One primary goal of this organization is to deconstruct the stigma that
often comes with being a victim of rape or sexual-assault. Cities that
have hosted SlutWalks include but are not limited to: (In the U.S.)
Seattle, Boston, Chicago, Spokane, Austin, and Philadelphia. The
original SlutWalk first took place in the city of Toronto, Canada.
[24]
Theory and manifestations
According to Chris O'Sullivan, acts of
sexism are commonly employed to validate and
rationalize normative
misogynistic
practices. For instance, sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect
for women and an accompanying disregard for their well-being. An example
would be a female rape victim being blamed for her being raped because
of how she dressed or acted. In O'Sullivan's article, sexualized
violence towards women is regarded as a continuum of a society that
regards women's bodies as sexually available by default.
[29]
According to some, the root cause of rape culture is the "domination and objectivication [sic] of women".
[30]
However, academic theory holds that rape culture does not necessarily
have a single cause, and causes may be localized based on other social
aspects of culture.
[31] For example, in South Africa the overriding "war culture" which emphasized masculinity and violence led to a culture in which
rape was normalized[28][30]
A University of California Davis public document alleged that the
enforcement of the following of social rules by women and the
conditioning of gender roles were major causes.
[32]
Others have also advanced the notion that, in a rape culture women are
conditioned to assume responsibility for male sexuality, and gender
roles are socially constructed and enforced on women through fear.
[33]
In a study of
date rape, gender-based miscommunications were held to be a major factor supporting a
campus rape culture.
[34]
The general unwillingness of police and district attorneys to prosecute
rapes where force was not involved or where the victim had some sort of
relationship with the aggressor is also cited as a motivation for date
rape and campus rape.
[31]
In addition, there have been reported incidents of colleges questioning
accounts of alleged victims, further complicating documentation and
policing of student assaults, despite such preventative legislation as
the
Clery Act.
[35][36]
Rape culture is also closely related to
slut-shaming and
victim blaming,
where rape victims are considered at fault for being raped, and it is
argued that this connection is due to the presence of a culture that
shames all female sexuality.
[31]
That some rapes are not reported to the police due to fear that they
would not be believed is often cited as a symptom of a rape culture,
[31][37] that they thought the police would not believe them is cited as a reason by 6% of women who did not report rape.
[38]
Pornography has also been commonly targeted as a contributor to rape
culture because it is said to contribute to larger patterns of
oppression. Feminists frequently link rape culture to the widespread
distribution of
pornography, which is seen as an expression of a rape culture that objectifies women, reducing the female body to a commodity.
[39] The fusion of several pornographic motifs are seen in the accounts of rapists.
[40]
Although much of its early use as a theory to explain the occurrence of rape and
domestic violence
was focused on the rape of women, rape culture has been described as
detrimental to men as well as women. Some writers and speakers, such as
Jackson Katz,
Michael Kimmel, and
Don McPherson, have said that it is intrinsically linked to
gender roles that limit male self-expression and cause psychological harm to men.
[41]
According to
Michael Parenti,
rape culture manifests through the acceptance of rapes as an everyday
occurrence, and even a male prerogative. It can be exacerbated by police
apathy in handling rape cases, as well as
victim blaming, reluctance by the authorities to go against
patriarchial cultural norms, as well as fears of
stigmatization from rape victims and their families.
[42]
Other sociologists posit that rape culture links nonconsensual sex to
the cultural fabric of a society, where patriarchial world views, laced
with misogyny and gender inequality, are passed from generation to
generation, leading to widespread social and institutional acceptance of
rape.
Feminists and sexual activists conceptualize rape cultures that
encourage gender violence, as well as perpetuate "rape myths", ranging
from treating rape as merely "rough sex" to blaming the victim for
inviting rape. Such "rape myths" are social messages that command women
to assume pre-defined gender roles concerning sexual behavior.
[43]
This idea is reflected in spousal rape. Rape culture perpetuates
particular rape myths that are then codified into law. Emergence of the
concepts like ′intimate partner rape′
[44] or ′
marital rape′
is one consequence of these rape myths. In addition, rape culture can
manifest when third parties separate the violence from the general
reputation and character of the perpetrators.
[45]
According to political scientist
Iris Marion Young,
victims in rape cultures live in fear of random acts of oppressive
sexual violence that are intended to damage or humiliate the victim.
[46]
Others link rape culture with modernisation and industrialisation,
arguing that pre-industrial societies tend to be "rape free" cultures,
since the lower status of women in these societies give them some
immunity from sexual violence. In industrial rape cultures, women emerge
from their homebound roles and make their presence felt in the
workplace and other areas traditionally dominated by men, increasing
male insecurities that lead to them using rape as a countering method.
[40][47]
Others also link rape culture to environmental insecurities, where men
objectify women as part of their struggle to control their immediate
environment. It is also linked to gender segregation, and the belief
that rape proves masculinity.
[48] Other manifestations of rape culture include
denial of widespread rape,
[49] institutional apathy towards the problem of rape,
[50] minimization of rape cases by government officials,
[49][50][51] and excusing rapists as social anomalies.
[49][50]
Rape culture can be perpetuated via language used in everyday
conversations. The frequency of rape jokes on the internet has been
cited as an example of the belittling of rape that characterizes rape
culture.
[52] Prison rape is a topic about which jokes are abundant. Linda McFarlane, director of
Just Detention International, states "Humor is part of the cultural attitude that (prison) is the one place where rape is okay."
[53]
Victim blaming and slut shaming
For more details on this topic, see Victim blaming and Slut-shaming.
Victim blaming is the phenomenon in which a victim of a crime
or an accident is partially or entirely attributed or responsible for
the transgressions committed against them.
[54]
An example of this could take place when a victim of a crime, (in this
case rape or sexual assault), is asked questions by the police, in an
emergency room, or in a court room, that suggests that the victim was
doing something, acting a certain way, or wearing clothes that may have
provoked the perpetrator, therefore making the transgressions against
the victim their own fault.
[55][56] This is an example of victim blaming committed by the authorities. However, this could also occur among a victim’s peers.
[57][58]
Also, while there is not a lot of general discussion of rape
facilitated in the home, schools, or government agencies, what
information or conversation there is often time perpetuates rape culture
due to the focus of the emphasis on techniques of “how not to be
raped,” vs “how not to rape.”
[59][60]
This is problematic due to the stigma created and transgressed against
the already victimized individuals rather than stigmatizing the
aggressive actions of rape and the rapists.
[60]
It is also commonly viewed that prisoners in prison deserve to be raped
and is a reasonable form of punishment for the crimes they committed.
However, this view merely fosters indifference to prison rape victims.
Slut shaming is a variant on victim blaming, to do with the
shaming of sexual behaviour. It describes the way people are made to
feel guilty or inferior for certain sexual behaviors or desires that
deviate from traditional or orthodox gender expectations. The
SlutWalk movement aims to challenge victim blaming, slut shaming and rape culture.
Sexual assault advocacy and treatment
Nurses, doctors and hospital staff are often trained to deal with the emotional well-being of rape victims.
[61]
The individuals that work closely with victims during the aftermath are
often the first people the victim sees after the traumatic event and
can play an important role in their recovery.
[62]
Hospital staff that portray understanding and helpful behavior may
leave the victim a sense of control and a positive outlook on their
future in spite of their experience.
[63]
Rape advocates often play a role in the recovery of rape victims. A
rape advocate is an individual, employed or volunteer, who works
directly with victims of sexual assault, advocating on their behalf
during the hospital procedures and informing them of their rights and
the local resources available to them. Rape advocates are often trained
through local social service agencies and sexual assault recovery
programs. Advocates can also answer calls for help from local sexual
assault crisis phone lines. Within the social service agency, there are
often advocates who specialize in various fields such as counseling,
legal assistance, group therapy and activism.
[64]
Criticisms
RAINN,
one of North America's leading anti-sexual violence organization, in a
report detailing recommendations to the White House on combating rape on
college campuses, decries an overemphasis on the concept of rape
culture as a means of preventing rape and as a cause for rape, saying,
"In the last few years, there has been an unfortunate trend towards
blaming 'rape culture' for the extensive problem of sexual violence on
campuses. While it is helpful to point out the systemic barriers to
addressing the problem, it is important to not lose sight of a simple
fact: Rape is caused not by cultural factors but by the conscious
decisions, of a small percentage of the community, to commit a violent
crime".
[65]
It is estimated that in college, 90% of rapes are committed by 3% of
the male population, though it is stipulated that they do not have
reliable numbers for female perpetrators. RAINN argues that rape is the
product of individuals who have decided to disregard the overwhelming
cultural message that rape is wrong. The report argues that trend
towards focusing on cultural factors that supposedly condone rape "has
the paradoxical effect of making it harder to stop sexual violence,
since it removes the focus from the individual at fault, and seemingly
mitigates personal responsibility for his or her own actions".
[66]
Caroline Kitchensi, in a 2014 article in
Time Magazine titled
"It’s Time to End ‘Rape Culture’ Hysteria" suggested that "Though rape
is certainly a serious problem, there’s no evidence that it’s considered
a cultural norm. ...On college campuses, obsession with eliminating
'rape culture' has led to censorship and hysteria."
[67]
Heather MacDonald suggested that "In a delicious historical irony, the
baby boomers who dismantled the university’s intellectual architecture
in favor of unbridled sex and protest have now bureaucratized both."
[68]
According to Joyce E. Williams, "the major criticism of rape culture
and the feminist theory from which it emanates is the monolithic
implication that ultimately all women are victimized by all men."
[1]
Christina Hoff Sommers
has disputed the existence of rape culture, arguing that the common
"one in four women will be raped in her lifetime" claim is based on a
flawed study, but frequently cited because it leads to campus anti-rape
groups receiving public funding. Sommers has also examined and
criticized many other rape studies for their methodology, and states,
"There are many researchers who study rape victimization, but their
relatively low figures generate no headlines."
[3]
Sommers and others
[69]
have specifically questioned Mary Koss's oft-cited 1984 study that
claimed 1 in 4 college women have been victims of rape, charging it
overstated rape of women and downplayed the incidence of men being the
victims of unwanted sex. According to Sommers, as many as 73% of the
subjects of Koss's study disagreed with her characterization that they
had been raped,
[70]
while others have pointed out that Koss's study focused on the
victimization of women, downplaying the significance of sexual
victimization of men,
[69] even though its own data indicated one in seven college men had been victims of unwanted sex.
[71]
Sommers points out that Koss had deliberately narrowed the definition
of unwanted sexual encounters for men to instances where men were
penetrated.
[72]
Other writers, such as
bell hooks,
have criticized the rape culture paradigm on the grounds that it is too
narrowly focused; in 1984, she wrote that it ignores rape's place in an
overarching "culture of violence".
[73]
In 1993 she contributed a chapter to a book on rape culture, focusing
on rape culture in the context of patriarchy in black culture.
[74]
Barbara Kay,
a Canadian journalist, has been critical of feminist Mary Koss's
discussion of rape culture, describing the notion that “rape represents
an extreme behavior but one that is on a continuum with normal male
behavior within the culture" as "remarkably
misandric".
[75]
Jadaliyya,
an academic initiative by the Arab Studies Institute, published another
critique of the concept of rape culture, criticizing the appropriation
of the term by
orientalists to promote
racist stereotypes of Arab and Muslim men, as well as
stereotypes of South Asians in western media and academia. The critique draws connections between media reports
demonizing Middle Eastern and
South Asian men as "racially prone to rape" and similar tactics employed by the
British as part of a
racist Indophobic propaganda campaign during the
1857 rebellion casting resistance fighters as rapists.
[76]
The UN conducted its ‘
Multi-country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific’
in 2008 in six countries across Asia. Its conclusions, published in
2013, seemed to indicate a substantial number of men in Asian countries
admit to committing some form of rape. The study’s general conclusion
about high levels of rape have been recognized as reliable; however,
questions about its accuracy perpetuate the debate about how societies
perceive rape and social norms. A closer look at the study’s methodology
reveals questions about cultural definitions of rape, the study’s
sample size, survey design, and linguistic accuracy, all of which
highlights ongoing challenges in trying to quantify the prevalence of
rape.
[77]
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- Christina Hoff Sommers, Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women, Simon and Schuster, 1994, 22. ISBN 0-671-79424-8 (hb), ISBN 0-684-80156-6 (pb), LCC HQ1154.S613 1994
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- hooks, bell (1993). "Editor's Preface". In Buchwald, Emilie; Fletcher, Pamela; Roth, Martha. Transforming a Rape Culture. Milkweed Editions. p. 391. ISBN 0915943069.
- Barbara Kay, (2014) ‘Rape culture’ fanatics don’t know what a culture is", National Post, http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2014/03/08/barbara-kay-rape-culture-fanatics-dont-know-what-a-culture-is/
- Gupta, Amith (2 January 2013). "Orientalist Feminism Rears its Head in India". Academic. Arab Studies Institute. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
- "How many men in Asia admit to rape?". Article. BBC. 1 November 2013.
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