Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War |
Part of the military intervention against ISIL
and the Syrian Civil War |
Two Sukhoi Su-25s at Bassel Al-Assad International Airport in Latakia, one type of ground attack aircraft involved in the intervention |
| Date |
30 September 2015 – present (1 week and 4 days) |
| Location |
Syria
|
| Status |
Ongoing |
|
| Belligerents |
Air war
 Russia
 Syria
Coalition forces-ground
 Iran
- Iranian-Backed Shi'ite Militias
Syria
 Hezbollah
 Iraq[1][2] |
 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant[3]
 Army of Conquest:[4]
Supported by:
 Saudi Arabia[6][7]
 Turkey[8][9]
 Qatar[7] |
 Free Syrian Army[10]
Supported by:
Saudi Arabia[6][11] |
| Commanders and leaders |
Vladimir Putin
Sergey Shoygu
Valery Gerasimov
Viktor Bondarev
Bashar al-Assad
Fahd Jassem al-Freij
Ali Abdullah Ayyoub
Issam Hallaq
Ali Khamenei[15]
Hassan Rouhani
Qasem Soleimani
Hassan Nasrallah |
Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi
Abu Mohammad al-Adnani (Spokesperson)
Abu Suleiman al-Naser (Replacement Military Chief)[16]
Abu Ali al-Anbari (Deputy, Syria)
Abu Omar al-Shishani (Field commander in Syria) [17][18]
 Abu Mohammad al-Julani (Leader of the al-Nusra Front)
 Abu Yahia al-Hamawi[19] (Leader of Ahrar ash-Sham) |
Albay Ahmed Berri |
| Units involved |
 Russian Armed Forces:
 Syrian Armed Forces:
 Iranian Armed Forces:
Hezbollah |
Military of ISIL
al-Nusra Front[5]
Ahrar ash-Sham[5]
Liwa al-Haqq
Ajnad al-Sham[25] |
Falcons of Mount Zawiya Brigade[26]
Tajammu al-Izzah[27] |
| Strength |
Coalition forces:
Russia:
3 Buyan-M class corvette[28]
1 Gepard-class frigate[28]
12 Su-24Ms
12 Su-25SMs[29]
6 Su-34s[30]
4 Su-30SMs[31]
15 Mi-24P and Mi-8AMTSh[32]
3 SA-22 SAMs[33]
6 T-90A Tanks[34]
35 armored personnel carriers[35]
15 Heavy Artillery Pieces[35]
200-800 Marine advisors[36][37]
Unspecified number of Special Forces operatives[38]
7th Guards Airborne Division[39]
Syria:
150,000 personnel[40]
Iran:
7,000-15,000[41][42] Shi'ite militias:
20,000[41] |
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant:
Around 100,000 fighters (according to Iraqi Kurdistan Chief of Staff)[43]
At least a few hundred tanks[44][45]
3 drones[46][47][48][49]
al-Nusra Front:
10,000[50]
Ahrar ash-Sham:
10,000-20,000[51] |
Free Syrian Army:
Between 45,000 and 60,000 fighters (disputed)[52] |
| Casualties and losses |
Russia:
Iran:
- One general (non-combat related)[2]
|
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant:
- at least 2 IS field commanders[53]
- 200+ killed[53]
- 30 vehicles destroyed[54]
al-Qaeda:
|
Free Syrian Army
1 leader killed,[56]
100+ militants killed[53][57]
22 wounded[58]
4+ armored vehicles[57] |
|
|
|
On 30 September 2015,
Russia started a military intervention in the
Syrian Civil War.
[59] It consisted of
air strikes by Russia against militant groups opposed to
Syrian government, primarily
al-Nusra Front and Jaysh al-Fatah (the
Army of Conquest).
[60][61][62]. Russian army had significant ground support from
Iranian ground troops, the
Syrian military, and allied militias.
[63] Prior to the intervention,
Russia's involvement in the Syrian Civil War had mainly consisted of arming the
Syrian Army.
[64] Russia intervened after a formal request from the
Syrian government for military help against rebel and
jihadist groups in
Syria.
[65]
Most of Russia's airstrikes during the first week of the campaign
struck areas held by rebel groups opposed to both the Syrian government
and the
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, such as
al-Nusra Front and
al-Qaeda affiliates.
[66][67][68][69][70][71]
The United States, which opposes both the Islamic State and the
Syrian government, has ruled out military cooperation with Russia in
Syria.
[72] Secretary of Defense
Ashton Carter and other senior U.S. officials said Russia's campaign was primarily aimed at propping up Assad, whom President
Barack Obama has repeatedly called upon to leave power,
[67] an assessment shared by
France.
[69] The U.S. has been
leading a separate
campaign in Syria since September 2014, as well as
one in Iraq since June 2014, both aimed solely against the Islamic State and al Qaeda affiliates.
Background
The Syrian Civil War is being waged between multiple opposition and
government groups and their local and foreign support bases, who share a
shifting, complex web of inter-relationships. As several months of air
strikes conducted by the
US-led coalition ostensibly against
ISIL targets appeared to have resulted in further expansion and strengthening of the ISIL,
[73]
Russia, an ally of Syria, in September 2015 started sending its own
Russian-operated warplanes and other military hardware, as well as
combat troops, to an
airbase near the port city of
Latakia in Syria.
[74] The action was undertaken at an official request by the Syrian government headed by President
Bashar al-Assad.
[75]
At the end of September 2015, a joint information centre in Baghdad
was set up by Iran, Iraq, Russia and Syria to coordinate their
operations against Islamic State.
[76]
On 30 September 2015, the
upper house of the
Russian Federal Assembly, the
Federation Council, granted the request by Russian President
Vladimir Putin to deploy the
Russian Air Force in Syria.
[77] On the same day, the Russian representative to the joint information centre arrived at the
US Embassy in Baghdad and requested that any U.S. forces in the targeted area in Syria leave immediately.
[78]
An hour later, the Russian aircraft based in the government-held
territory began conducting airstrikes ostensibly against the Islamic
State targets.
[79]
Operations by Russian military
Russian
Su-24 jet aircraft at an air base in Latakia, Syria
The first series of
air strikes took place on 30 September 2015 in areas around the cities of
Homs and
Hama, targeting the
mainstream opposition.
[59] Russian warplanes attacked rebel positions "in
al-Rastan,
Talbiseh and Zafaraniya in
Homs province; Al-Tilol al-Hmer in
Quneitra province; Aydoun, a village on the outskirts of the town of
Salamiya; Deer Foul, between
Hama and
Homs; and the outskirts of
Salmiya".
[80] In total, 20 flights were made.
[81] Most of the initial airstrikes targeted positions of the
Free Syrian Army.
[82][83]
According to
Hezbollah media outlet
Al Mayadeen, the Saudi/Turkish-backed
Army of Conquest[7] around Jisr ash-Shugour was bombed on 1 October by Russian planes; at least 30 air strikes were carried out.
[14] Another series of Russian airstrikes carried out that same day hit
ISIL positions in Raqqa governorate.
[3]
On 2 October, head of the foreign-affairs committee in the
Russian parliament,
Aleksey Pushkov, said that the Russian airstrikes could go on for three to four months and would intensify;
[84] he later said that this was a mere surmise of his and he was not privy to any knowledge on the issue.
[85] In the morning, the Russian Air Force launched four airstrikes on ISIS in the ancient
Syriac city of
Al-Qaryatayn, and the Teefor-Palmyra highway,
Homs province.
[22]
An ISIS command and control center was destroyed in a single airstrike
in Al-Qaryatayn, while an ISIS convoy on their way to the Teefor-Palmyra
highway was attacked.
[22] Following the airstrikes, the
Syrian Army and
National Defence Forces
pushed ISIS out of the town of Maheen towards Al-Qaryatayn after a two
hour engagement that killed 18 militants and destroyed two technicals
mounted with
ZU-23-2s.
[22] Syrian forces then launched a counter-attack south-west of Al-Qaryatayn to recover the main road.
[22]
In the same day, the Russian Air Force began bombing
Al-Nusra Front positions in al-Rastan and Talbiseh in the
Homs province.
[12] Later, they proceeded with bombing Al-Nusra in
Kafr Zita, Al-Ghaab Plains,
Kafr Nabl, Kafr Sijnah, and Al-Rakaya in the
Hama province.
[12] The Syrian Air Force and the Russian Air Force jointly bombed Al-Nusra in
Jisr al-Shughur.
[12] At night, the Russian Air Force targeted ISIS with 11 airstrikes over
Al-Raqqah while targeting electrical grids outside it, two airstrikes over Shadadi-Hasakah highway, and three airstrikes in Al-Mayadeen,
Deir ez-Zor province.
[12] The primary ISIS military base in
Tabaqa
Military Airport was also attacked, with the barracks being destroyed
in two airstrikes. Near the Military Airport, an ISIS weapons supply
depot in Al-‘Ajrawi Farms was also bombed. At the same time, the ISIS
primary headquarters in Tabaqa National Hospital was heavily damaged in a
Russian airstrike.
[12][13] In
Al-Hasakah province,
the Russian Air Force targeted ISIS in Al-Shadadi and Al-Houl, while
the Syrian Air Force attacked an ISIS convoy along the Deir
ez-Zor-Hasakah highway.
[13]
On 3 October, reports indicated that Hezbollah and Iranian fighters
were preparing major ground offensives to be coordinated with Russian
airstrikes.
[86]
According to CNN, the Russian defense ministry said its soldiers bombed
nine ISIS positions near the terror group's de facto capital in Raqqa.
At least 11 were killed in an alleged double strike by Russia in Syria's
Idlib province, according to opposition groups.
[87] During the day, the Russian Air Force made four airstrikes over Al-Nusra controlled Jisr al-Shughur, and additional ones in
Jabal Al-Zawiya, and
Jabal al-Akrad.
[88] One of the targets was an Al-Nusra reinforcement convoy heading from Jisr al-Shughur to the northeast countryside of
Latakia province.
[88]
On the morning of 7 October 2015, according to the Russian officials, four warships from the
Russian Navy's
Caspian Flotilla launched 26
3M-14T Kalibr NK[89]
cruise missiles that hit 11 targets within Syrian territory. The
missiles passed through Iranian and Iraqi airspace in order to reach
their targets at a distance of well over about 1,500 kilometers (930
miles).
[90] The same day, Syrian ground forces were reported to carry out an offensive under Russian air cover.
[91][92] According to unnamed U.S. military and intelligence officials, the second salvo of cruise missiles on 8 October crashed in
Iran, well before reaching their targets in Syria. Russia claimed all of its missiles hit their targets.
[93][94]
The Russian defense ministry announced on 9 October that up to sixty
ISIL targets were hit in the past 24 hours, supposedly killing 300
militants in the most intense strikes so far. One of the raids targeted a
Liwa al-Haqq base in the
Al-Raqqah Governorate using
KAB-500KR
precision-guided bombs, in which two senior ISIL commanders and up to
200 militants were killed, despite the lack of connection between Liwa
al-Haqq and ISIL. Another assault destroyed a former prison near Aleppo
that was used by ISIL as a base and munitions depot, also killing scores
of militants. Rebel training sites in the Latakia and Idlib provinces
were allegedly hit as well.
[95]
Meanwhile, ISIL militants made advances in the Aleppo area on 9
October, seizing several villages, including Tal Qrah, Tal Sousin, and
Kfar Qares, in what the
Associated Press
called a "lightning attack". The attacks were unencumbered by either
Russian or U.S.-led coalition airstrikes. The ISIL advance came at the
expense of rebel groups also targeted by Russian and Syrian forces.
[96]
Iranian role
The
Quds Force under General
Qasem Soleimani
has been involved in support of the Assad government since the very
beginning of the Syrian Civil War in 2011. This support has taken many
forms, chief among them military support in terms of training,
logistics, deployments of allied militias to Syria (particularly Shi'ite
militias), operational and strategic planning, intelligence-sharing and
weaponry. Iran is estimated to be providing the equivalent of many
billions of dollars in financial aid.
[41] Key victories were achieved with substantial support provided by the Quds force, namely the al-Ghab plains battles,
Aleppo
offensives, Dara'aya offensives of 2015 and the al-Qusayr offensives
which established government and Hezbollah control over the northern
Qalamoun region and the border crossings from Lebanon to Syria.
After the loss of
Idlib province
to a rebel offensive in the first half of 2015, the situation was
judged to have become critical for Assad's survival. High level talks
were initiated between Moscow and Iran which continue to this day which
involved the Russian and Iranian foreign ministers, concerning possible
solutions to the Syrian conflicts. On 24 July, ten days after the
signing of the nuclear agreement between Iran and the P5+1 countries,
General Qasem Soleimani visited Moscow.
[97]
Though the exact content of the meeting between Soleimani and Putin is
widely speculated about, there is growing consensus that the chief
matter at hand was a plan of coordinated escalation of military forces
in Syria.
[98]
In mid-September 2015, the first reports of new detachments from the
Iranian revolutionary guards arriving in Tartous and Latakia in west
Syria were made. With much of the SAA and NDF units deployed to more
volatile fronts, the Russian Marines and Iranian Revolutionary Guard
(IRG) have relieved their positions by installing military checkpoints
inside the cities of Slunfeh (east Latakia Governorate), Masyaf (east
Tartous Governorate) and Ras Al-Bassit (Latakia coastal city).
[99] There were also further reports of new Iranian contingents being deployed to Syria in early October 2015.
[100]
It is generally thought that Iran will be playing a leading role in the
ground operations of Syria's army and allies, whilst Russia will be
leading in the air in conjunction with the Syrian air force, thereby
establishing a complementary role.
[15]
Outside of the battlefield itself the Iranian government has
dramatically increased its efforts in supporting the Syrian government
and its military. Recently there has been an exponential increase in
recruitment efforts aimed at drawing on Shi'ite militias in Iraq in
order to deploy them to Syria.
[23] One of the leading militias in Iran's efforts to bolster the war effort in Syria is
Kata'ib al-Imam Ali,
with Jaafar al-Bindawi, the militia's former head of training and
logistics, would be leading the deployment in Syria, while Ali Nizam
would serve as the new logistical director for Syrian affairs. Another
important allied militia in this context is Harakat Hezbollah al-Nujaba
which similar to Kata'ib al-Imam Ali was formed with Iranian assistance
from mainly former Sadrist supporters and fighters. There is increasing
evidence that these Iranian-backed militias are not only operating under
Iranian guidance but are also cooperating with the Russian military
command established in Syria.
[23]
On 8 October reports came in of the death of
General Hamadani, the deputy to General
Qasem Soleimani
in Syria. Initially it was claimed that he fell to gun-fire from ISIL
militants in northern Aleppo whilst advising the troop build-up on that
front.
[101] However it later transpired that the cause of his death was an auto-mobile accident.
[2] It is thought that his death will significantly delay the ground-operations in northern Syria as
Hamadani was the primary strategist in the planning of the coming operations.
[2]
Reactions
Domestic
Russian and
US representatives meet to discuss the situation in
Syria on 29 September 2015
Syria: The Syrian ambassador to
Moscow,
Riyad Haddad stated that the Russian air force is acting in full
coordination with the Syrian army. He added that Syria's position is
that the Russian intervention is the only legitimate intervention under
international law, and called for other countries to join what he termed
the "non-criminal" Russian-led intervention in Syria.
[75]
International
U.S.-led coalition:
In a joint statement issued on 1 October 2015, participants in the
U.S.-led anti-ISIL coalition
called on Russia to curtail its air campaign in Syria, saying the
airstrikes had hit Syrian opposition groups and civilians. Such strikes
would "only fuel more extremism", the statement issued by the U.S., UK,
Turkey and other coalition members declared.
[102]
"We call on the Russian Federation to immediately cease its attacks on
the Syrian opposition and civilians and to focus its efforts on fighting
ISIL."
[103]
U.S. President Barack Obama, at a news conference on October 2,
underscored the coalition statement by saying the Russian action was
driving moderate opposition groups underground, and would result in
"only strengthening" IS.
[104]
- U.S.: In early October 2015, U.S. president Barack Obama was
reported to have authorized the resupply of Syrian Kurds and the
Arab-Syrian opposition, emphasizing to his team that the U.S. would
continue to support the Syrian opposition now that Russia had joined the
conflict.[105]
On 8 October 2015, U.S. defence minister Carter, talking at a meeting
of NATO defence ministers in Brussels, said he believed Russia would
soon start paying the price for its military intervention in Syria in
the form of reprisal attacks and casualties;[106] he added he expected that "in the next few days the Russians will begin to lose in Syria".[107]
- NATO has condemned Russian air strikes,[108]
urged Russia to stop backing Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and on 8
October 2015 renewed assurances to defend the allies in view of the
"escalation of Russian military activities" in Syria.[109]
- Saudi Arabia: On 1 October 2015, Reuters reported that Saudi Arabia
had demanded that Russia cease its intervention, repeating claims made
by Western diplomats that Russia was targeting the moderate
anti-government opposition rather than "ISIS".[110]
Erdoğan visited Moscow to discuss Syria and to attend the opening of the newly built
Cathedral Mosque, 23 September 2015
- Turkey's president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan,
after a series of alleged violations of the country′s airspace by
Russian military aircraft in early October 2015, warned that Russia’s
military operation in Syria could jeopardise the bilateral ties between
the countries.[111]
The Russian Federation: On 27 September 2015, President Vladimir Putin told journalist
Charlie Rose
that "More than 2,000 fighters from Russia and ex-Soviet republics are
in the territory of Syria. There is a threat of their return to us. So,
instead of waiting for their return, we are better-off fighting them on
Syrian territory".
[112] On 30 September 2015, the
Russian Orthodox Church spokesman
Vsevolod Chaplin,
talking about the support of the government's action on the part of all
the religious groups in Russia, said the fight against terrorism was a
"moral fight, a
holy fight if you will".
[113][114] Leader of the Central Spiritual Administration of
Muslims of Russia, Chief Mufti
Talgat Tadzhuddin stated: "We fully back the use of a contingent of Russian armed forces in the battle against international terrorism."
[115]
On 1 October 2015, President Vladimir Putin dismissed reports of
alleged casualties among civilians caused by Russian airstrikes in Syria
as "information warfare" against Russia, adding that these claims had
begun before the planes used in the airstrikes had even taken off.
[116] The Russian Defence Ministry made a claim that satellite images confirm that some air strikes hit alleged ISIS positions.
[117]
Iran: Iran was confirmed as having hundreds of troops in Syria ready for combat against ISIS.
[118]
Iraq: In early October 2015, the top officials of Iraq
indicated that they would welcome Russian air strikes on Islamic State
militants in Iraq and wanted Russia to have a bigger role than the U.S.
in the war against the militant group.
[119]
Egypt: On 3 October 2015, Egypt′s foreign minister
Sameh Shoukry said the Russian entry into war in Syria was bound "to have an effect on limiting terrorism in Syria and eradicating it".
[120]
China: China denied sending warships and troops to Syria after rumors about it were circulated around the internet.
[121]
Israel:
Israel was given advance warning of the airstrikes and has set up a working group to "coordinate on everything" with the Russians.
[122] They were particularly concerned about ensuring the de facto alliance between
Hezbollah and Russia won't lead to any unfortunate incidents.
[123] According to
Zvi Magen,
former Israeli ambassador to Moscow, “Israel made clear to him [Putin]
that we have no real problem with Assad, just with Iran and Hizbullah,
and that message was understood.”
[124]
Non-state
- Chechen and Caucasian foreign fighters reportedly have begun flocking to the coastal regions of Syria where the Russians are based in order to seek them out.[citation needed][125]
- The Al-Qaeda-linked Al-Nusra Front[126] has set a reward for the seizure of Russian soldiers of 2,500,000 Syrian pounds (approximately US$13,000).[127]
- The Syria-based, Al-Qaeda linked Saudi cleric Abdallah Muhammad Al-Muhaysini
threatened that Syria would be a "tomb for its invaders" or "graveyard
for invaders" in response to the Russian intervention and brought up the
Soviet war in Afghanistan.[128][129][130]
- The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood issued a statement declaring Jihad against Russia obligatory (Fard 'ayn) upon all who are able to carry weapons.[131][132][133] They reiterated the Russian Orthodox Church's call of the operation as a Holy War.[134][135][136][137][138][139][140]
- 55 Saudi religious scholars signed a statement against the
Russian intervention, first addressing the Russians as "Oh Russians, oh
extremist people of the Cross", reminding them of the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan and addressing the Orthodox Russia as the heir of the
Soviet Communists, accusing them of "supporting the Nusyari regime" and
invading "Muslim Syria", accusing the leaders of the Russian Orthodox
Church of declaring a "Crusade" and telling them they will meet the fate
of the Soviet Union and suffer "a shameful defeat in the Levant" as
what happened in Afghanistan. The statement also addressed "Our people
in the Levant", telling able-bodied and people who are able to
contribute to join the "Jihad" instead of emigrating. The statement also
called for all factions against the government in Syria to unite; the
statement addressed "Arab and Muslim countries", telling them that there
is a "real war against Sunnis and their countries and identity" at the
hands of the "Western-Russian and Safavid and Nusayri alliance", calling
for the termination of all relations with Iran and Russia with Muslim
countries and to "protect the land and people of the Levant from the
influence of the Persians and Russians", especially calling upon Qatar,
Turkey, and Saudi Arabia to support the Levant.[141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149] The statement called on "all those who are able, and outside of Saudi Arabia, to answer the calls of jihad".[150][151]
- Representatives of the Kurdish YPG and PYD expressed their support for Russian air strikes against Islamic State, al-Nusra Front and Ahrar ash-Sham. They also asked for Russian help in weaponry and for the cooperation with Russia in the fight against Islamic State.[152][153] Shortly after the Russian air strikes started, Salih Muslim,
co-chair of the PYD, has said in an interview that he doesn't believe
"that America will object because [Jabhat] al-Nusra and Ahrar al-Sham
are no different than Daesh. They are all terrorist organizations and
share the same radical mentality."[152]
Media analysis
Thomas L. Friedman, a columnist for the
New York Times, wrote that Putin is "effectively putting a target on himself in the eyes of all
Sunni Muslims".
[154] The publication
Voice of America predicted a major backlash against the Russians at the hands of jihadists.
[155]
Robert Fisk, senior Middle East correspondent for the
The Independent,
wrote that "The Russian air force in Syria has flown straight into the
West’s fantasy air space. The Russians, we are now informed, are bombing
the “moderates” in Syria – “moderates” whom even the Americans admitted
two months ago, no longer existed."
[156]
Sputnik International
political observer Dmitry Babich criticized the anti-Russian rhetoric
in Western media with claims they were attacking the moderate
opposition. He highlighted how Western
propaganda was "delivering false, sometimes even immoral information" to paint Vladimir Putin as a villain with hidden motives.
[157]
The
Syrian Arab News Agency
reported that terrorists were in panic and fleeing Syria in their
thousands in response to the Russian intervention. They expressed the
view that the "moderate opposition" were in fact hired
mercenaries trained in
CIA supervised training camps in
Turkey,
Jordan,
Qatar and
Saudi Arabia,
many of whom had switched allegiance and taken their weaponry to ISIL
and other terrorist groups paying more once they controlled the
oil fields.
[158]
On 8 October 2015, the BBC quoted US-based analyst Michael Kofman as
opining that Russia sought the defeat of fighters backed by the US, and
its coalition allies, leaving the Islamic State and al-Nusra Front as
the only alternatives to President Assad; he noted that a more robust
American campaign against ISIL would be complimentary with Russian
goals, and a win-win scenario for Assad: "Ultimately, Russia and Iran
have secured their position in Syria. Assad or no Assad, the West will
have to deal with Russia directly, and most likely as an equal, in
settlement to the Syrian conflict."
[159]
See also
References
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Gareth Porter (28 May 2015). "Gulf allies and ‘Army of Conquest’". Al-Ahram Weekly. Archived from the original on 10 October 2015.
Kim Sengupta (12 May 2015). "Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria". The Independent.
"'Army of Conquest' rebel alliance pressures Syria regime". Yahoo News. 28 April 2015.
"Russia unleashes first wave of airstrikes in Syria". Al Arabiya. 30 September 2015.
"Saudi Arabia just replenished Syrian rebels with one of the most effective weapons against the Assad regime". Business Insider. 9 October 2015.
Leith Fadel (2 October 2015). "Russian Air Force Begins Massive Aerial Campaign Against ISIS in East Syria". Al-Masdar News. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
Leith Fadel (2 October 2015). "ISIS Rocked in Al-Raqqa: Russian Air Force Strikes Tabaqa Airport". Al-Masdar News. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
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[1]
[2]
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