War in Afghanistan (2001–present) - Wikipedia,...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001–present)CachedThis article is about the war in Afghanistan from 2001 to present. For the previous conflicts, see History of Afghanistan#Contemporary era (1973–present).War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the war in Afghanistan from 2001 to present. For the previous conflicts, see History of Afghanistan#Contemporary era (1973–present). For other phases of the conflict, see War in Afghanistan. For the phase of the same conflict following the end of ISAF in 2014, see War in Afghanistan (2015–present)."Afghanistan invasion" redirects here. For other invasions of Afghanistan, see Invasions of Afghanistan.War in Afghanistan Part of War in Afghanistan (1978–present),
the Global War on Terrorism,
and the Spillover of the War in North-West Pakistan
Clockwise from top-left: British Royal Marines take part in the clearance of Nad-e Ali District of Helmand Province; two F/A-18 strike fighters conduct combat missions over Afghanistan; an anti-Taliban fighter during an operation to secure a compound in Helmand Province; A French chasseur alpin patrols a valley in Kapisa Province; U.S. Marines prepare to board buses shortly after arriving in southern Afghanistan; Taliban fighters in a cave hideout; U.S. soldiers prepare to fire a mortar during a mission in the Paktika Province, US troops disembark from a helicopter, a MEDCAP centre in Khost Province, A soldier sleeps beside a coffin, US and British troops in a 2007 exercise.Date 7 October 2001 – present
(13 years, 8 months, 1 week and 1 day)Location Afghanistan Result - Defeat of the Taliban government in Afghanistan and fall of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
- Destruction of al-Qaeda camps
- Killing of Osama bin Laden
- Establishment of new Afghan government and creation of the new Afghan National Army
- Taliban insurgency and War in North-West Pakistan
- Return of more than 5.7 million Afghan refugees from Pakistan and Iran[3]
- Continuation of war and transfer of the combat role to the Afghan Armed Forces[4]
Belligerents Coalition:
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–present)
- Major contributing nations with more than 200 troops as of May 2015
Insurgent groups:
2001 invasion:
Northern Alliance
United States
United Kingdom
Australia
Canada2001 invasion:
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
al-QaedaCommanders and leaders Barack Obama
David Cameron
Matteo Renzi
Angela Merkel
Ashraf Ghani
John F. Campbell
Formerly:
George W. Bush
Tony Blair
Gordon Brown
Jean Chrétien
Paul Martin
Stephen Harper
Silvio Berlusconi
Romano Prodi
Mario Monti
Enrico Letta
Gerhard Schröder
Hamid Karzai
List of former ISAF CommandersMohammed Omar
Ayman al-Zawahiri
Jalaluddin Haqqani
Formerly:
Osama bin Laden (KIA)Strength ISAF: 18,000+[5]
Military Contractors: 20,000+[5]
Afghan Armed Forces: 352,000[6]Taliban: 60,000 (tentative estimate)[7]
al-Qaeda: 50–100[8][9]
Haqqani network: 4,000–15,000[10][11][12]Casualties and losses Coalition:
Dead: 3,486 (all causes)
2,807 (hostile causes)
(United States: 2,356, United Kingdom: 453, Canada: 158, France: 88, Germany: 57, Italy: 53, Others: 321)[13]
Wounded: 22,773 (United States: 19,950, United Kingdom: 2,188, Canada: 635)[14][15][16]
Contractors:
Dead: 1,582[17][18]
Wounded: 15,000+[17][18]
Afghan Security Forces:
16,013+ killed[19][20]
Afghan Northern Alliance:
200 killed[21][22][23][24]
Total killed: 20,743+25,500–40,500 killed[7][25] Civilians killed: 16,725–19,013 (2001–2013)[26]
Further information: Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–14)[show]
[show]
[show]
War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda, bin Laden had already been wanted by the U.N. since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given what they deemed convincing evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks[33] and ignored demands to shut down terrorist bases and hand over other terrorist suspects apart from bin Laden. The request was dismissed by the U.S. as a meaningless delaying tactic and it launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001 with the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance.[34][35] The U.S. and its allies drove the Taliban from power and built military bases near major cities across the country. Most al-Qaeda and Taliban were not captured, escaping to neighboring Pakistan or retreating to rural or remote mountainous regions.[citation needed]
In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), to assist the Afghan interim authorities with securing Kabul. At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[36]
In 2003, NATO assumed leadership of ISAF, with troops from 43 countries. NATO members provided the core of the force.[37] One portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF.[38][39]
Though vastly outgunned and outnumbered, the Taliban insurgents, most notably the Haqqani Network and Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin, have waged asymmetric warfare with guerilla raids and ambushes in the countryside, suicide attacks against urban targets and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. ISAF responded in 2006 by increasing troops for counterinsurgency operations to "clear and hold" villages and "nation building" projects to "win hearts and minds".[40][41]
While ISAF continued to battle the Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighboring North-West Pakistan.[42] In 2004, the Pakistani Army began to clash with local tribes hosting al-Qaeda and Taliban militants. The US military launched drone attacks in Pakistan to kill insurgent leaders. This resulted in the start of an insurgency in Waziristan in 2007.
On 2 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, Pakistan. In May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces. UN-backed peace talks have since taken place between the Afghan government and the Taliban.[43] In May 2014, the United States announced that its combat operations would end in 2014, leaving just a small residual force in the country until the end of 2016.[44]
As of 2015, tens of thousands of people have been killed in the war. Over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors as well as over 15,000 Afghan national security forces members have been killed. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, officially ending their combat operations in the war.[45] The war in Afghanistan is the longest war in United States history.
Contents
- 1 Historical background
- 2 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan
- 3 An insurgency gains strength
- 4 Reassessment and renewed commitment from 2008
- 4.1 Taliban attacks on supply lines
- 4.2 Issues with Pakistan
- 4.3 2009: Southern Afghanistan
- 4.4 2010: American–British offensive and Afghan peace initiative
- 4.5 2011: U.S. and NATO drawdown
- 4.6 2012: Strategic Agreement
- 4.7 2013: Withdrawal
- 4.8 2014: Withdrawal continues and the insurgency increases
- 4.9 2015: Secretive war
- 5 Impact on Afghan society
- 6 War crimes
- 7 Costs
- 8 Stability challenges
- 9 Afghan security forces
- 10 Insider attacks
- 11 Reactions
- 12 Human rights abuses
- 13 Environmental legacy
- 14 See also
- 15 References
- 16 Sources
- 17 Further reading
- 18 External links
Historical background
Taliban Emirate vs. Northern Alliance
Main article: Civil war in Afghanistan (1996–2001)In 1994, Mullah Omar, a Pashtun, a mujahideen who taught at a Pakistani madrassa, returned to Kandahar and founded the Taliban. His followers were religious students, known as the Talib and they sought to end warlordism through strict adherence to Islamic law. By November 1994, the Taliban had captured all of Kandahar Province. They declined the government's offer to join in a coalition government and marched on Kabul in 1995.[46]
The Taliban's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of costly defeats.[47] Pakistan provided strong support to the Taliban.[48][49] Analysts such as Amin Saikal described the group as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests, which the Taliban denied.[48]
On 27 September 1996, the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia, seized Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.[50] They imposed their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in areas under their control, issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home, attend school, or to leave their homes unless accompanied by a male relative.[51] According to the Pakistani expert Ahmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan" on the side of the Taliban.[52][53]
Massoud and Dostum, former arch-enemies, created a United Front against the Taliban, commonly known as the Northern Alliance. In addition to Massoud's Tajik force and Dostum's Uzbeks, the United Front included Hazara factions and Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq and Haji Abdul Qadir. Abdul Haq also gathered a limited number of defecting Pashtun Taliban.[54] Both agreed to work together with the exiled Afghan king Zahir Shah.[53] The Northern Alliance received varying degrees of support from Russia, Iran, Tajikistan and India.
The Taliban captured Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998 and drove Dostum into exile.
The conflict was brutal. According the United Nations (UN), the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians. UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001. The Taliban especially targeted the Shiite Hazaras.[55][56] In retaliation for the execution of 3,000 Taliban prisoners by Uzbek general Abdul Malik Pahlawan in 1997, the Taliban executed about 4,000 civilians after taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998.[57][58]
By 2001, the Taliban controlled as much as 90% of the country, with the Northern Alliance confined to the country's northeast corner. Fighting alongside Taliban forces were some 28,000–30,000 Pakistanis and 2,000–3,000 Al Qaeda militants.[46][59][60][61] Many of the Pakistanis were recruited from madrassas.[59] A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirmed that "20–40 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani." The document said that many of the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan". According to the U.S. State Department report and reports by Human Rights Watch, other Pakistani nationals fighting in Afghanistan were regular soldiers, especially from the Frontier Corps, but also from the army providing direct combat support.[49][62]
al-Qaeda
In August 1996, Bin Laden was forced to leave Sudan. He had founded al-Qaeda in the late 1980s to support the mujahideen war against the Soviets, but became disillusioned by infighting among warlords. He grew close to Mullah Omar and moved al-Qaeda's operations to Jalalabad, eastern Afghanistan.
Under the Taliban, al-Qaeda was able to use Afghanistan as a place to train and indoctrinate fighters, import weapons, coordinate with other jihadists, and plot terrorist actions.[63] While al-Qaeda maintained its own camps in Afghanistan, it also supported training camps of other organizations. An estimated 10,000 and 20,000 men passed through these facilities before 9/11, most of whom were sent to fight for the Taliban against the United Front. A smaller number were inducted into al-Qaeda.[64]
After the August 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings were linked to bin Laden, President Bill Clinton ordered missile strikes on militant training camps in Afghanistan. U.S. officials pressed the Taliban to surrender bin Laden. In 1999, the international community imposed sanctions on the Taliban, calling for bin Laden to be surrendered. The Taliban repeatedly rebuffed these demands.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Special Activities Division paramilitary teams were active in Afghanistan in the 1990s in clandestine operations to locate and kill or capture Osama bin Laden. These teams planned several operations, but did not receive the order to proceed from President Clinton. Their efforts built relationships with Afghan leaders that proved essential in the 2001 invasion.[65]
Change in U.S. policy toward Afghanistan
During the Clinton administration, the U.S. tended to favor Pakistan and until 1998–1999 had no clear policy toward Afghanistan. In 1997, for example, the U.S. State Department's Robin Raphel told Massoud to surrender to the Taliban. Massoud responded that, as long as he controlled an area the size of his hat, he would continue to defend it from the Taliban.[46] Around the same time, top foreign policy officials in the Clinton administration flew to northern Afghanistan to try to persuade the United Front not to take advantage of a chance to make crucial gains against the Taliban. They insisted it was the time for a cease-fire and an arms embargo. At the time, Pakistan began a "Berlin-like airlift to resupply and re-equip the Taliban", financed with Saudi money.[66]
U.S. policy toward Afghanistan changed after the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. Subsequently, Osama bin Laden was indicted for his involvement in the embassy bombings. In 1999 both the U.S. and the United Nations enacted sanctions against the Taliban via United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267, which demanded the Taliban surrender Osama bin Laden for trial in the U.S. and close all terrorist bases in Afghanistan.[67] The only collaboration between Massoud and the US at the time was an effort with the CIA to trace bin Laden following the 1998 bombings.[68] The U.S. and the European Union provided no support to Massoud for the fight against the Taliban.
By 2001 the change of policy sought by CIA officers who knew Massoud was underway.[69] CIA lawyers, working with officers in the Near East Division and Counter-terrorist Center, began to draft a formal finding for President George W. Bush's signature, authorizing a covert action program in Afghanistan. It would be the first in a decade to seek to influence the course of the Afghan war in favor of Massoud.[50] Richard A. Clarke, chair of the Counter-Terrorism Security Group under the Clinton administration, and later an official in the Bush administration, allegedly presented a plan to incoming Bush National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice in January 2001.
A change in US policy was effected in August 2001.[50] The Bush administration agreed on a plan to start supporting Massoud. A meeting of top national security officials agreed that the Taliban would be presented with an ultimatum to hand over bin Laden and other al-Qaeda operatives. If the Taliban refused, the US would provide covert military aid to anti-Taliban groups. If both those options failed, "the deputies agreed that the United States would seek to overthrow the Taliban regime through more direct action."[70]
Northern Alliance on the eve of 9/11
Ahmad Shah Massoud was the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. In the areas under his control, Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Declaration.[71] As a consequence, many civilians had fled to areas under his control.[72][73] In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban.[74]
In late 2000, Massoud officially brought together this new alliance in a meeting in Northern Afghanistan to discuss "a Loya Jirga, or a traditional council of elders, to settle political turmoil in Afghanistan".[75] That part of the Pashtun-Tajik-Hazara-Uzbek peace plan did eventually develop. Among those in attendance was Hamid Karzai.[76][77]
In early 2001, Massoud, with other ethnic leaders, addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan.[74] He said that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and Osama bin Laden, the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for another year.[74] On this visit to Europe, he warned that his intelligence had gathered information about an imminent, large-scale attack on U.S. soil.[78]
On 9 September 2001, Massoud was critically wounded in a suicide attack by two Arabs posing as journalists, who detonated a bomb hidden in their video camera during an interview in Khoja Bahauddin, in the Takhar Province of Afghanistan.[79][80] Massoud died in the helicopter taking him to a hospital. The funeral, held in a rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning Afghans.
September 11, 2001 attacks
Main article: September 11 attacks
In total, 2,996 people, including the 19 hijackers, died in the attacks.[84] According to the New York State Health Department, 836 responders, including firefighters and police personnel, had died as of June 2009.[84]
U.S. invasion of Afghanistan
Main article: United States invasion of Afghanistan
U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda, bin Laden had already been wanted by the U.N. since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given what they deemed convincing evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks[86] and ignored demands to shut down terrorist bases and hand over other terrorist suspects apart from bin Laden. The request was dismissed by the U.S. as a meaningless delaying tactic and it launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001 with the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance.[87][35] The U.S. and its allies drove the Taliban from power and built military bases near major cities across the country. Most al-Qaeda and Taliban were not captured, escaping to neighboring Pakistan or retreating to rural or remote mountainous regions.[citation needed]
On 20 December 2001, the United Nations authorized an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), with a mandate to help the Afghans maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas. It was initially established from the headquarters of the British 3rd Mechanised Division under Major General John McColl, and for its first years numbered no more that 5,000.[88] Its mandate did not extend beyond the Kabul area for the first few years.[89] Eighteen countries were contributing to the force in February 2002.
At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[36]
In August 2003, NATO became involved as an alliance, taking the helm of the International Security Assistance Force.[90] One portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF.[91][39]
An insurgency gains strength
Further information: War in North-West Pakistan, 2003 in Afghanistan, 2004 in Afghanistan and 2005 in AfghanistanAfter evading coalition forces throughout mid-2002, Taliban remnants gradually regained confidence and prepared to launch the Taliban insurgency that Omar had promised.[92] During September, Taliban forces began a jihad recruitment drive in Pashtun areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pamphlets distributed in secret appeared in many villages in southeastern Afghanistan called for jihad.[93]
Small mobile training camps were established along the border to train recruits in guerrilla warfare.[94] Most were drawn from tribal area madrassas in Pakistan. Bases, a few with as many as 200 fighters, emerged in the tribal areas by the summer of 2003. Pakistani will to prevent infiltration was uncertain, while Pakistani military operations proved of little use.[95]
To coordinate the strategy, Omar named a 10-man leadership council, with himself as its leader.[95] Five operational zones were assigned to Taliban commanders such as Dadullah, who took charge in Zabul province.[95] Al-Qaeda forces in the east had a bolder strategy of attacking Americans using elaborate ambushes. The first sign of the strategy came on 27 January 2003, during Operation Mongoose, when a band of fighters were assaulted by U.S. forces at the Adi Ghar cave complex 25 km (15 mi) north of Spin Boldak.[96] 18 rebels were reported killed with no U.S. casualties. The site was suspected to be a base for supplies and fighters coming from Pakistan. The first isolated attacks by relatively large Taliban bands on Afghan targets also appeared around that time.
On 11 August 2003, NATO assumed control of ISAF.[89] On 31 July 2006, ISAF assumed command of the south of the country, and by 5 October 2006, of the east.[97] Once this transition had taken place, ISAF grew to a large coalition involving up to 46 countries, under a U.S. commander.
2006: Southern Afghanistan
Main article: Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006Further information: 2006 in AfghanistanFrom January 2006, a multinational ISAF contingent started to replace U.S. troops in southern Afghanistan. The British 16th Air Assault Brigade (later reinforced by Royal Marines) formed the core of the force, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada and the Netherlands. The initial force consisted of roughly 3,300 British,[98] 2,300 Canadian,[99] 1,963 Dutch, 300 Australian,[100] 290 Danish[101] and 150 Estonian troops.[102] Air support was provided by U.S., British, Dutch, Norwegian and French combat aircraft and helicopters.
In January 2006, NATO's focus in southern Afghanistan was to form Provincial Reconstruction Teams with the British leading in Helmand while the Netherlands and Canada would lead similar deployments in Orūzgān and Kandahar, respectively. Local Taliban figures pledged to resist.[103]
A combined force of Dutch and Australians launched a successful offensive between late April to mid July 2006 to push the Taliban out of the Chora and Baluchi areas.
On 18 September 2006 Italian special forces of Task Force 45 and airborne troopers of the 'Trieste' infantry regiment of the Rapid Reaction Corps composed of Italian and Spanish forces, took part in 'Wyconda Pincer' operation in the districts of Bala Buluk and Pusht-i-Rod, in Farah province. Italian forces killed at least 70 Taliban. The situation in RC-W then deteriorated. Hotspots included Badghis in the very north and Farah in the southwest.
Further NATO operations included the Battle of Panjwaii, Operation Mountain Fury and Operation Falcon Summit. NATO achieved tactical victories and area denial, but the Taliban were not completely defeated. NATO operations continued into 2007.
2007: Coalition offensive
Main article: Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2007Further information: 2007 in Afghanistan
On 4 March 2007, U.S. Marines killed at least 12 civilians and injured 33 in Shinwar district, Nangrahar,[109] in a response to a bomb ambush. The event became known as the "Shinwar Massacre".[110] The 120 member Marine unit responsible for the attack were ordered to leave the country by Army Major General Frank Kearney, because the incident damaged the unit's relations with the local Afghan population.[111]
On 12 May 2007, ISAF forces killed Mullah Dadullah. Eleven other Taliban fighters died in the same firefight.
During the summer, NATO forces achieved tactical victories at the Battle of Chora in Orūzgān, where Dutch and Australian ISAF forces were deployed.
On 28 October about 80 Taliban fighters were killed in a 24-hour battle in Helmand.[112]
Western officials and analysts estimated the strength of Taliban forces at about 10,000 fighters fielded at any given time. Of that number, only 2,000 to 3,000 were highly motivated, full-time insurgents. The rest were part-timers, made up of alienated, young Afghans, angered by bombing raids or responding to payment. In 2007, more foreign fighters came than ever before, according to officials. Approximately 100 to 300 full-time combatants are foreigners, usually from Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Chechnya, various Arab countries and perhaps even Turkey and western China. They were reportedly more fanatical and violent, often bringing superior video-production or bombmaking expertise.[113]
On 2 November security forces killed a top-ranking militant, Mawlawi Abdul Manan, after he was caught crossing the border. The Taliban confirmed his death.[114] On 10 November the Taliban ambushed a patrol in eastern Afghanistan. This attack brought the U.S. death toll for 2007 to 100, making it the Americans' deadliest year in Afghanistan.[115]
The Battle of Musa Qala took place in December. Afghan units were the principal fighting force, supported by British forces.[116] Taliban forces were forced out of the town.
Reassessment and renewed commitment from 2008
Main article: Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2008Further information: 2008 in Afghanistan
In the first five months of 2008, the number of U.S. troops in Afghanistan increased by over 80% with a surge of 21,643 more troops, bringing the total from 26,607 in January to 48,250 in June.[118] In September 2008, President Bush announced the withdrawal of over 8,000 from Iraq and a further increase of up to 4,500 in Afghanistan.[119]
In June 2008, British prime minister Gordon Brown announced the number of British troops serving in Afghanistan would increase to 8,030 – a rise of 230.[120] The same month, the UK lost its 100th serviceman.[121]
On 13 July 2008, a coordinated Taliban attack was launched on a remote NATO base at Wanat in Kunar province. On 19 August, French troops suffered their worst losses in Afghanistan in an ambush.[123] Later in the month, an airstrike targeted a Taliban commander in Herat province and killed 90 civilians.
Late August saw one of NATO's largest operations in Helmand, Operation Eagle's Summit, aiming to bring electricity to the region.[124]
On 3 September, commandos, believed to be U.S. Army Special Forces, landed by helicopter and attacked three houses close to a known enemy stronghold in Pakistan. The attack killed between seven and twenty people. Local residents claimed that most of the dead were civilians. Pakistan condemned the attack, calling the incursion "a gross violation of Pakistan's territory".[125][126]
On 11 September, militants killed two U.S. troops in the east. This brought the total number of U.S. losses to 113, more than in any prior year.[128] Several European countries set their own records, particularly the UK, who suffered 108 casualties.[13]
Taliban attacks on supply lines
In November and December 2008, multiple incidents of major theft, robbery, and arson attacks afflicted NATO supply convoys in Pakistan.[129][130][131] Transport companies south of Kabul were extorted for money by the Taliban.[131][132] These incidents included the hijacking of a NATO convoy carrying supplies in Peshawar,[130] the torching of cargo trucks and Humvees east of the Khyber pass[133] and a half-dozen raids on NATO supply depots near Peshawar that destroyed 300 cargo trucks and Humvees in December 2008.[134]
Issues with Pakistan
Main articles: Pakistan's role in the War on Terror and Pakistan–United States skirmishes
On 25 September 2008, Pakistani troops fired on ISAF helicopters. This caused confusion and anger in the Pentagon, which asked for a full explanation into the incident and denied that U.S. helicopters were in Pakistani airspace.
A further split occurred when U.S. troops apparently landed on Pakistani soil to carry out an operation against militants in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. 'Pakistan reacted angrily to the action, saying 20 innocent villagers had been killed by US troops'.[137] However, despite tensions, the U.S. increased the use of remotely piloted drone aircraft in Pakistan's border regions, in particular the Federally Administered Tribal Regions (FATA) and Balochistan; as of early 2009, drone attacks were up 183% since 2006.[138]
By the end of 2008, the Taliban apparently had severed remaining ties with al-Qaeda.[139] According to senior U.S. military intelligence officials, perhaps fewer than 100 members of al-Qaeda remained in Afghanistan.[140]
In a meeting with General Stanley McChrystal, Pakistani military officials urged international forces to remain on the Afghan side of the border and prevent militants from fleeing into Pakistan. Pakistan noted that it had deployed 140,000 soldiers on its side of the border to address militant activities, while the coalition had only 100,000 soldiers to police the Afghanistan side.[141]
2009: Southern Afghanistan
Further information: 2009 in Afghanistan, List of military operations in the war in Afghanistan (2001–14) § 2009 operations and Khyber Border Coordination CenterNorthern Distribution Network
On 11 May 2009, Uzbekistan president Islam Karimov announced that the airport in Navoi (Uzbekistan) was being used to transport non-lethal cargo into Afghanistan. Due to the still unsettled relationship between Uzbekistan and the U.S. following the 2005 Andijon massacre and subsequent expulsion of U.S. forces from Karshi-Khanabad airbase, U.S. forces were not involved in the shipments. Instead, South Korea's Korean Air, which overhauled Navoi's airport, officially handled logistics.[146]
Human rights advocates were (as of 2009) concerned that the U.S. was again working with the government of Uzbekistan, which is often accused of violating human rights.[148] U.S. officials promised increased cooperation with Uzbekistan, including further assistance to turn Navoi into a regional distribution center for both military and civilian ventures.[149][150]
Increase in U.S. troops
In November, Ambassador Karl W. Eikenberry sent two classified cables to Washington expressing concerns about sending more troops before the Afghan government demonstrates that it is willing to tackle the corruption and mismanagement that has fueled the Taliban's rise. Eikenberry, a retired three-star general who in 2006–2007 commanded U.S. troops in Afghanistan, also expressed frustration with the relative paucity of funds set aside for development and reconstruction.[155] In subsequent cables, Eikenberry repeatedly cautioned that deploying sizable American reinforcements would result in "astronomical costs" – tens of billions of dollars – and would only deepen the Afghan government's dependence on the United States.
On 1 December, Obama announced at the U.S. Military Academy in West Point that the U.S. would send 30,000 more troops.[158] Antiwar organizations in the U.S. responded quickly, and cities throughout the U.S. saw protests on 2 December.[159] Many protesters compared the decision to deploy more troops in Afghanistan to the expansion of the Vietnam War under the Johnson administration.[160]
Kunduz airstrike
Main article: Kunduz airstrikeOn 4 September, during the Kunduz Province Campaign a devastating NATO air raid was conducted 7 kilometres southwest of Kunduz where Taliban fighters had hijacked civilian supply trucks, killing up to 179 people, including over 100 civilians.[161]
Operation Khanjar and Operation Panther's Claw
Main articles: Operation Strike of the Sword and Operation Panther's ClawOn 25 June US officials announced the launch of Operation Khanjar ("strike of the sword").[162] About 4000 U.S. Marines from the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade[163] and 650 Afghan soldiers[164] participated. Khanjar followed a British-led operation named Operation Panther's Claw in the same region.[165] Officials called it the Marines' largest operation since the 2004 invasion of Fallujah, Iraq.[163] Operation Panther's Claw was aimed to secure various canal and river crossings to establish a long-term ISAF presence.[166]
Taliban gains
On 10 August McChrystal, newly appointed as U.S. commander in Afghanistan, said that the Taliban had gained the upper hand. In a continuation of the Taliban's usual strategy of summer offensives,[170] the militants aggressively spread their influence into north and west Afghanistan and stepped up their attack in an attempt to disrupt presidential polls.[171] Calling the Taliban a "very aggressive enemy", he added that the U.S. strategy was to stop their momentum and focus on protecting and safeguarding Afghan civilians, calling it "hard work".[172]
The Taliban's claim that the over 135 violet incidents disrupting elections was largely disputed. However, the media was asked to not report on any violent incidents.[173] Some estimates reported voter turn out as much less than the expected 70 percent. In southern Afghanistan where the Taliban held the most power, voter turnout was low and sporadic violence was directed at voters and security personnel. The chief observer of the European Union election mission, General Philippe Morillon, said the election was "generally fair" but "not free".[174]
Western election observers had difficulty accessing southern regions, where at least 9 Afghan civilians and 14 security forces were killed in attacks intended to intimidate voters. The Taliban released a video days after the elections, filming on the road between Kabul and Kandahar, stopping vehicles and asking to see their fingers. The video went showed ten men who had voted, listening to a Taliban militant. The Taliban pardoned the voters because of Ramadan.[175] The Taliban attacked towns with rockets and other indirect fire. Amid claims of widespread fraud, both top contenders, Hamid Karzai and Abdullah Abdullah, claimed victory. Reports suggested that turnout was lower than in the prior election.[176]
After Karzai's alleged win of 54 per cent, which would prevent a runoff, over 400,000 Karzai votes had to be disallowed after accusations of fraud. Some nations criticized the elections as "free but not fair".[177]
In December, an attack on Forward Operating Base Chapman, used by the CIA to gather information and to coordinate drone attacks against Taliban leaders, killed at least six CIA officers.
2010: American–British offensive and Afghan peace initiative
Main article: 2010 in AfghanistanIn public statements U.S. officials had previously praised Pakistan's military effort against militants during its offensive in South Waziristan in November 2009.[178] Karzai started peace talks with Haqqani network groups in March 2010,[179] and there were other peace initiatives including the Afghan Peace Jirga 2010. In July 2010, a U.S. Army report read: "It seems to always be this way when we go there [to meet civilians]. No one wants anything to do with us." A report on meeting up with school representatives mentioned students throwing rocks at soldiers and not welcoming their arrival, as had been reported on several occasions elsewhere.[180] President Zardari said that Pakistan had spent over 35 billion U.S. dollars during the previous eight years fighting against militancy.[181] According to the Afghan government, approximately 900 Taliban were killed in operations conducted during 2010.[182] Due to increased use of IEDs by insurgents the number of injured coalition soldiers, mainly Americans, significantly increased.[183] Beginning in May 2010 NATO special forces began to concentrate on operations to capture or kill specific Taliban leaders. As of March 2011, the U.S. military claimed that the effort had resulted in the capture or killing of more than 900 low- to mid-level Taliban commanders.[184][185] Overall, 2010 saw the most insurgent attacks of any year since the war began, peaking in September at more than 1,500. Insurgent operations increased "dramatically" in two-thirds of Afghan provinces.[186]
Troop surge
Deployment of additional U.S. troops continued in early 2010, with 9,000 of the planned 30,000 in place before the end of March and another 18,000 expected by June, with the 101st Airborne Division as the main source. U.S. troops in Afghanistan outnumbered those in Iraq for the first time since 2003.[187]
The CIA, following a request by General McChrystal, planned to increase teams of operatives, including elite SAD officers, with U.S. military special operations forces. This combination worked well in Iraq and was largely credited with the success of that surge.[188] The CIA also increased its campaign using Hellfire missile strikes on Al-Qaeda in Pakistan. The number of strikes in 2010, 115, more than doubled the 50 drone attacks that occurred in 2009.[189]
The surge in troops supported a sixfold increase in Special Forces operations.[190] 700 airstrikes occurred in September 2010 alone versus 257 in all of 2009. From July 2010 to October 2010, 300 Taliban commanders and 800 foot soldiers were killed.[191] Hundreds more insurgent leaders were killed or captured as 2010 ended.[190] Petraeus said, "We've got our teeth in the enemy's jugular now, and we're not going to let go."[192]
The CIA created Counter-terrorism Pursuit Teams (CTPT) staffed by Afghans at the war's beginning.[193][194] This force grew to over 3,000 by 2010 and was considered one of the "best Afghan fighting forces". Firebase Lilley was one of SAD's nerve centers.[194] These units were not only effective in operations against the Taliban and al-Qaeda forces in Afghanistan,[195] but have expanded their operations into Pakistan.[196] They were also important factors in both the "counterterrorism plus" and the full "counter-insurgency" options discussed by the Obama administration in the December 2010 review.[197]
WikiLeaks disclosure
Main article: Afghan War documents leakOn 25 July 2010, the release of 91,731 classified documents from the WikiLeaks organization was made public. The documents cover U.S. military incident and intelligence reports from January 2004 to December 2009.[198] Some of these documents included sanitised, and "covered up", accounts of civilian casualties caused by Coalition Forces. The reports included many references to other incidents involving civilian casualties like the Kunduz airstrike and Nangar Khel incident.[199] The leaked documents also contain reports of Pakistan collusion with the Taliban. According to Der Spiegel, "the documents clearly show that the Pakistani intelligence agency Inter-Services Intelligence (usually known as the ISI) is the most important accomplice the Taliban has outside of Afghanistan."[200]
Pakistan and U.S. tensions
Main articles: Pakistan–United States skirmishes and Pakistan–United States relationsTensions between Pakistan and the U.S. were heightened in late September after several Pakistan Frontier Corps soldiers were killed and wounded. The troops were attacked by a U.S. piloted aircraft that was pursuing Taliban forces near the Afghan-Pakistan border, but for unknown reasons opened fire on two Pakistan border posts. In retaliation for the strike, Pakistan closed the Torkham ground border crossing to NATO supply convoys for an unspecified period. This incident followed the release of a video allegedly showing uniformed Pakistan soldiers executing unarmed civilians.[201] After the Torkham border closing, Pakistani Taliban attacked NATO convoys, killing several drivers and destroying around 100 tankers.[202]
2011: U.S. and NATO drawdown
Further information: 2011 in Afghanistan and Withdrawal of U.S. troops from AfghanistanBattle of Kandahar
Main article: Battle of KandaharThe Battle of Kandahar was part of an offensive named after the Battle of Bad'r that took place on 13 March 624, between Medina and Mecca. The Battle followed an 30 April announcement that the Taliban would launch their Spring offensive.[203]
On 7 May the Taliban launched a major offensive on government buildings in Kandahar. The Taliban said their goal was to take control of the city. At least eight locations were attacked: the governor's compound, the mayor's office, the NDS headquarters, three police stations and two high schools.[204] The battle continued onto a second day. The BBC's Bilal Sarwary called it "the worst attack in Kandahar province since the fall of the Taliban government in 2001, and a embarrassment for the Western-backed Afghan government."[205]
Death of Osama bin Laden
Main article: Death of Osama bin LadenOn 2 May U.S. officials announced that al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden had been killed in Operation Neptune Spear, conducted by the CIA and U.S. Navy SEALs, in Pakistan. Crowds gathered outside the White House chanting "USA, USA" after the news emerged.[206]
Withdrawal
On 22 June President Obama announced that 10,000 troops would be withdrawn by the end of 2011 and an additional 23,000 troops would return by the summer of 2012. After the withdrawal of 10,000 U.S. troops, only 80,000 remained.[207] In July 2011 Canada withdrew its combat troops, transitioning to a training role.
Following suit, other NATO countries announced troop reductions. The United Kingdom stated that it would gradually withdraw its troops, however it did not specify numbers or dates.[208] France announced that it would withdraw roughly 1,000 soldiers by the end of 2012, with 3,000 soldiers remaining. Hundreds would come back at the end of 2011 and in the beginning of 2012, when the Afghan National Army took control of Surobi district. The remaining troops would continue to operate in Kapisa. Their complete withdrawal was expected by the end of 2014 or earlier given adequate security.[209]
Belgium announced that half of their force would withdraw starting in January 2012.[210] Norway announced it had started a withdrawal of its near 500 troops and would be completely out by 2014.[211] Equally, the Spanish Prime Minister announced the withdrawal of troops beginning in 2012, including up to 40 percent by the end of the first half of 2013, and complete withdrawal by 2014.[212]
2011 U.S.–NATO attack in Pakistan
Main article: 2011 NATO attack in PakistanAfter Neptune Spear, an accidental, direct attack on Pakistan's armed forces by ISAF forces occurred on 26 November, killing 24 Pakistani soldiers. Pakistan blocked NATO supply lines and ordered Americans to leave Shamsi Airfield. NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen said the attack was 'tragic' and 'unintended'. "This (regret) is not good enough. We strongly condemn the attacks and reserve the right to take action," said DG ISPR Major General Athar Abbas. "This could have serious consequences in the level and extent of our cooperation.[213]
2012: Strategic Agreement
Main article: 2012 in AfghanistanTaliban attacks continued at the same rate as they did in 2011, remaining around 28,000 Taliban "enemy initiated" attacks.[214] In September 2012, the surge of American personnel that began in late 2009 ended.[215]
Reformation of the United Front (Northern Alliance)
In January 2012, the National Front of Afghanistan raised concerns about the possibility of a secret deal between the US, Pakistan and the Taliban during a widely publicized meeting in Berlin. U.S. Congressman Louie Gohmert wrote, "These leaders who fought with embedded Special Forces to initially defeat the Taliban represent over 60-percent of the Afghan people, yet are being entirely disregarded by the Obama and Karzai Administrations in negotiations."[222] After the meeting with US congressmen in Berlin the National Front signed a joint declaration stating among other things:
"We firmly believe that any negotiation with the Taliban can only be acceptable, and therefore effective, if all parties to the conflict are involved in the process. The present form of discussions with the Taliban is flawed, as it excludes anti-Taliban Afghans. It must be recalled that the Taliban extremists and their Al-Qaeda supporters were defeated by Afghans resisting extremism with minimal human embedded support from the United States and International community. The present negotiations with the Taliban fail to take into account the risks, sacrifices and legitimate interests of the Afghans who ended the brutal oppression of all Afghans.[223]
—National Front Berlin Statement, January 2012High-profile U.S. military incidents
Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement
Main article: U.S.-Afghanistan Strategic Partnership AgreementOn 2 May 2012, Presidents Karzai and Obama signed a strategic partnership agreement between the two countries, after the US president had arrived unanounced in Kabul on the first anniversary of Osama bin Laden's death.[235] The U.S.-Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement, officially entitled the "Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement between the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the United States of America",[236] provides the long-term framework for the two countries' relationship after the drawdown of U.S. forces.[237] The Strategic Partnership Agreement went into effect on 4 July 2012, according to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on 8 July 2012 at the Tokyo Conference on Afghanistan.[238] On 7 July 2012, as part of the agreement, the U.S. designated Afghanistan a major non-NATO ally after Karzai and Clinton met in Kabul.[239] On 11 November 2012, as part of the agreement, the two countries launched negotiations for a bilateral security agreement.[240]
NATO Chicago Summit: Troops withdrawal and long-term presence
Further information: 2012 Chicago Summit, 2011 NATO attack in Pakistan and Withdrawal of U.S. troops from AfghanistanOn 21 May 2012 the leaders of NATO-member countries endorsed an exit strategy during the NATO Summit.[36] ISAF Forces would transfer command of all combat missions to Afghan forces by the middle of 2013,[241] while shifting from combat to advising, training and assisting Afghan security forces.[242][243] Most of the 130,000 ISAF troops would depart by the end of December 2014.[241] A new NATO mission would then assume the support role.[242][244]
2013: Withdrawal
Karzai–Obama meeting
Karzai visited the U.S. in January 2012. At the time the U.S. Government stated its openness to withdrawing all of its troops by the end of 2014.[245] On 11 January 2012 Karzai and Obama agreed to transfer combat operations from NATO to Afghan forces by spring 2013 rather than summer 2013.[246][247] "What's going to happen this spring is that Afghans will be in the lead throughout the country", Obama said. "They [ISAF forces] will still be fighting alongside Afghan troops...We will be in a training, assisting, advising role." Obama added[247] He also stated the reason of the withdrawals that "We achieved our central goal, or have come very close...which is to de-capacitate al-Qaeda, to dismantle them, to make sure that they can't attack us again."[248]
Both leaders agreed that the United States would transfer Afghan prisoners and prisons to the Afghan government[247][251] and withdraw troops from Afghan villages in spring 2013.[251][252] "The international forces, the American forces, will be no longer present in the villages, that it will be the task of the Afghan forces to provide for the Afghan people in security and protection," the Afghan president said.[251]
Security transfer
On 18 June 2013 the transfer of security responsibilities was completed.[253][254][255][256] The last step was to transfer control of 95 remaining districts. Karzai said, "When people see security has been transferred to Afghans, they support the army and police more than before." NATO leader Rasmussen said that Afghan forces were completing a five-stage transition process that began in March 2011. "They are doing so with remarkable resolve," he said. "Ten years ago, there were no Afghan national security forces … now you have 350,000 Afghan troops and police."[253] ISAF remained slated to end its mission by the end of 2014.[256] Some 100,000 ISAF forces remained in the country.[254]
2014: Withdrawal continues and the insurgency increases
See also: NATO logistics in the Afghan WarAfter 2013, Afghanistan has been shaken hard with suicide bombings by the Taliban. A clear example of this is a bombing of a Lebanese restaurant in the Wazir Akbar Khan area of Kabul on 18 February 2014. Among the dead in this attack was UN staff and the owner of the restaurant, who died protecting his business. 21 people altogether were killed. Meanwhile, the withdrawal continues with 200 more US troops alone coming home. The UK have halved their force and are slowing withdrawing with all but two bases being closed down. On 20 March 2014, more than 4 weeks after a bomb in a military bus by the Taliban rocked the city once again, a raid on the Serena hotel in Kabul by the Taliban resulted in the deaths of 9 people, including the 4 perpetrators. The attack came just 8 days after Swedish radio journalist Nils Horner was shot dead by the Taliban.
Despite the crisis in Crimea, by March 2014 Russia had not tried to exert pressure on the U.S. via the Northern Distribution Network supply line.[257] On 9 June 2014 a coalition air strike mistakenly killed five U.S. troops, an Afghan National Army member and an interpreter in Zabul Province.[258]
On 5 August 2014, a gunman in an Afghan military uniform opened fire on a number of U.S., foreign and Afghan soldiers, killing a U.S. general, Harold J. Greene[259] and wounding about 15 officers and soldiers including a German brigadier general and a large number of U.S. soldiers at Camp Qargha, a training base west of Kabul.[260]
Two longterm security pacts, the Bilaterial Security agreement between Afghanistan and the United States of America and the NATO Status of Forces Agreement between NATO and Afghanistan, were signed on September 30, 2014. Both pacts lay out the framework for the foreign troop involvement in Afghnistan after the year 2014.[261]
After 13 years Britain and the United States officially ended their combat operation in Afghanistan on October 26, 2014. On that day Britain handed over its last base in Afghanistan, Camp Bastion, while the United States handed over its last base, Camp Leatherneck, to Afghan forces.[262]
As early as November 2012, the U.S. and NATO were considering the precise configuration of their post-2014 presence in Afghanistan.[263][264] On 27 May 2014, President Barack Obama announced that U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan would end in December 2014 (see Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan). 9,800 troops were to remain, training Afghan security forces and supporting counterterrorism operations against remnants of al-Qaeda. This force would be halved by the end of 2015, and consolidated at Bagram Air Base and in Kabul. All U.S. forces, with the exception of a "normal embassy presence," would be removed from Afghanistan by the end of 2016.[265] In 2014, 56 United States service members, and 101 contractors, died in Afghanistan.[266]
On 28 December 2014 NATO officially ended combat operations in a ceremony held in Kabul.[31] Continued operations by United States forces within Afghanistan will continue under the name Operation Freedom's Sentinel;[267] this was joined by a new NATO mission under the name of Operation Resolute Support.[268] Operation Resolute Support, will involve 28 NATO nations, 14 partner nations, eleven thousand American troops, and eight hundred fifty German troops.[269]
The UK officially commemorated the end of its role in the Afghan war in a ceremony held in St Paul's cathedral on 13 March 2015. [270]
2015: Secretive war
See also: War in Afghanistan (2015–present)Although there was a formal end of combat operations, American forces have increased raids against "Islamist militants", moving beyond counterterrorism missions. This is partially due to improved relations between the United States due to the Ghani presidency. Reasoning used for these raids include protecting American forces, which has been broadly interpreted.[271] One raid, a joint raid by American and Afghan forces arrested six Taliban connected to the 2014 Peshawar school massacre.[272] American Secretary of Defense Ash Carter traveled to Afghanistan in February 2015;[273] during a period when it was discussed that the U.S. would slow down its withdrawal from Afghanistan.[274] In February 2015, the headquarters element of America's 7th Infantry Division began to deploy to Afghanistan.[275] It will be joined by 10th Mountain Division's 2nd Brigade Combat Team, and 101st Combat Aviation Brigade.[276] In March 2015, it was announced that the United States will maintain almost ten thousand servicemembers in Afghanistan until at least the end of 2015, a change from planned reduction.[277] As late as late-May 2015, US forces continued to conduct airstrikes and Special Operations raids, while Afghan forces were losing ground to Taliban forces in some regions.[278]
By 2015, billions had been spent on aid in Afghanistan, making little impact on most Afghani's daily lives.[279]
Impact on Afghan society
Civilian casualties
Main article: Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–14)
A report titled Body Count put together by Physicians for Social Responsibility, Physicians for Global Survival and the Nobel Peace Prize-winning International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[286]
According to the Watson Institute for International Studies Costs of War Project, 21,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the war.[287]
According to Nicholas Kristoff, improved healthcare resulting from the war has saved hundreds of thousands of lives.[288]
Refugees
Since 2001, more than 5.7 million former refugees have returned to Afghanistan,[3][289][290] but 2.2 million others remained refugees in 2013.[291] In January 2013 the UN estimated that 547,550 were internally displaced persons, a 25% increase over the 447,547 IDPs estimated for January 2012[290][291][292]
Drug trade
Main article: Opium production in Afghanistan
By 2000 Afghanistan accounted for an estimated 75% of the world's opium supply and in 2000 produced an estimated 3276 tonnes from 82,171 hectares (203,050 acres).[294] Omar then banned opium cultivation and production dropped to an estimated 74 metric tonnes from 1,685 hectares (4,160 acres).[295] Some observers say the ban – which came in a bid for international recognition at the United Nations – was issued only to raise opium prices and increase profit from the sale of large existing stockpiles. 1999 had yielded a record crop and had been followed by a lower but still large 2000 harvest. The trafficking of accumulated stocks continued in 2000 and 2001. In 2002, the UN mentioned the "existence of significant stocks of opiated accumulated during previous years of bumper harvests". In September 2001 – before 11 September attacks against the U.S. – the Taliban allegedly authorized Afghan peasants to sow opium again.[293]
Soon after the invasion opium production increased markedly.[296] By 2005, Afghanistan was producing 90% of the world's opium, most of which was processed into heroin and sold in Europe and Russia.[297] In 2009, the BBC reported that "UN findings say an opium market worth $65bn (£39bn) funds global terrorism, caters to 15 million addicts, and kills 100,000 people every year".[298]
Public education
As of 2013, 8.2 million Afghans attended school, including 3.2 million girls, up from 1.2 million in 2001, including fewer than 50,000 girls.[299][300]
War crimes
Further information: List of war crimes § Civil war in Afghanistan 1978–presentWar crimes (a serious violation of the laws and customs of war giving rise to individual criminal responsibility)[301] have been committed by both sides, including civilian massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.
Taliban
In 2011 The New York Times reported that the Taliban was responsible for 3⁄4 of all civilian deaths in the war in Afghanistan.[302][303] In 2013 the UN stated that the Taliban had been placing bombs along transit routes.[304]
Northern Alliance
In December 2001 the Dasht-i-Leili massacre took place, where between 250 and 3,000 Taliban fighters who had surrendered, were shot and/or suffocated to death in metal truck containers during transportation by Northern Alliance forces. Reports place U.S. ground troops at the scene.[305][306][307] The Irish documentary Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death investigated these allegations and claimed that mass graves of thousands of victims were found by UN investigators[308] and that the US blocked investigations into the incident.[309]
Coalition
In 2002, two unarmed civilian Afghan prisoners were tortured and later killed by U.S. armed forces personnel at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility (also Bagram Collection Point or B.C.P.) in Bagram, Afghanistan.[312] The prisoners, Habibullah and Dilawar, were chained to the ceiling and beaten, which caused their deaths.[313] Military coroners ruled that both the prisoners' deaths were homicides.[314] Autopsies revealed severe trauma to both prisoners' legs, describing the trauma as comparable to being run over by a bus. Fifteen soldiers were charged.
During the summer of 2010, ISAF charged five United States Army soldiers with the murder of three Afghan civilians in Kandahar province and collecting their body parts as trophies in what came to be known as the Maywand District murders. In addition, seven soldiers were charged with crimes such as hashish use, impeding an investigation and attacking the whistleblower, Specialist Justin Stoner.[315][316][317] Eleven of the twelve soldiers were convicted on various counts.[318]
A British Royal Marine Sergeant, identified as Sergeant Alexander Blackman from Taunton, Somerset,[319] was convicted at court martial in Wiltshire of having murdered an unarmed, reportedly wounded Afghan fighter in Helmand Province in September 2011.[320] In 2013, he received a life sentence from the court martial in Bulford, Wiltshire, and was dismissed with disgrace from the Royal Marines.[321][322]
On 11 March 2012, the Kandahar massacre occurred when sixteen civilians were killed and six wounded in the Panjwayi District of Kandahar Province, Afghanistan.[323][324] Nine of the victims were children,[324] and eleven of the dead were from the same family.[325] United States Army Staff Sergeant Robert Bales was taken into custody and charged with sixteen counts of premeditated murder. After pleading guilty to sixteen counts of premeditated murder, Bales was sentenced to life in prison without parole.[326]
Costs
The cost of the war reportedly was a major factor as U.S. officials considered drawing down troops in 2011.[327] A March 2011 Congressional Research Service report noted, 1) following the Afghanistan surge announcement in 2009, Defense Department spending on Afghanistan increased by 50%, going from $4.4 billion to $6.7 billion a month. During that time, troop strength increased from 44,000 to 84,000, and was expected to be at 102,000 for fiscal year 2011; 2) The total cost from inception to the fiscal year 2011 was expected to be $468 billion.[328] The estimate for the cost of deploying one U.S. soldier in Afghanistan is over US$1 million a year.[329]
Stability challenges
Observers have argued that the mission in Afghanistan is hampered by a lack of agreement on objectives, a lack of resources, lack of coordination, too much focus on the central government at the expense of local and provincial governments, and too much focus on the country instead of the region.[331]
In 2009, Afghanistan moved three places in Transparency International's annual index of corruption, becoming the world's second most-corrupt country just ahead of Somalia.[332] In the same month, Malalai Joya, a former member of the Afghan Parliament and the author of "Raising My Voice", expressed opposition to an expansion of the U.S. military presence and her concerns about the future. "Eight years ago, the U.S. and NATO – under the banner of women's rights, human rights, and democracy – occupied my country and pushed us from the frying pan into the fire. Eight years is enough to know better about the corrupt, mafia system of President Hamid Karzai. My people are crushed between two powerful enemies. From the sky, occupation forces bomb and kill civilians … and on the ground, the Taliban and warlords continue their crimes. It is better that they leave my country; my people are that fed up. Occupation will never bring liberation, and it is impossible to bring democracy by war."[333]
Pakistan plays a central role in the conflict. A 2010 report published by the London School of Economics says that Pakistan's ISI has an "official policy" of support to the Taliban.[334] "Pakistan appears to be playing a double-game of astonishing magnitude," the report states.[334] Amrullah Saleh, former director of Afghanistan's intelligence service, stated, "We talk about all these proxies [Taliban, Haqqanis] but not the master of proxies, which is the Pakistan army. The question is what does Pakistan's army want to achieve …? They want to gain influence in the region"[335] About the presence of foreign troops in Afghanistan he stated: "[T]hey fight for the U.S. national interest but … without them we will face massacre and disaster and God knows what type of a future Afghanistan will have."[335][336]
Afghan security forces
Further information: Afghan National Army § Current statusAfghan National Army
U.S. policy called for boosting the Afghan National Army to 134,000 soldiers by October 2010. By May 2010 the Afghan Army had accomplished this interim goal and was on track to reach its ultimate number of 171,000 by 2011.[337] This increase in Afghan troops allowed the U.S. to begin withdrawing its forces in July 2011.[338][339]
In 2010, the Afghan National Army had limited fighting capacity.[340] Even the best Afghan units lacked training, discipline and adequate reinforcements. In one new unit in Baghlan Province, soldiers had been found cowering in ditches rather than fighting.[341] Some were suspected of collaborating with the Taliban.[340] "They don't have the basics, so they lay down," said Capt. Michael Bell, who was one of a team of U.S. and Hungarian mentors tasked with training Afghan soldiers. "I ran around for an hour trying to get them to shoot, getting fired on. I couldn't get them to shoot their weapons."[340] In addition, 9 out of 10 soldiers in the Afghan National Army were illiterate.[342]
The Afghan Army was plagued by inefficiency and endemic corruption.[343] U.S. training efforts were drastically slowed by the problems.[344] U.S. trainers reported missing vehicles, weapons and other military equipment, and outright theft of fuel.[340] Death threats were leveled against U.S. officers who tried to stop Afghan soldiers from stealing. Afghan soldiers often snipped the command wires of IEDs instead of marking them and waiting for U.S. forces to come to detonate them. This allowed insurgents to return and reconnect them.[340] U.S. trainers frequently removed the cell phones of Afghan soldiers hours before a mission for fear that the operation would be compromised.[345] American trainers often spent large amounts of time verifying that Afghan rosters were accurate – that they are not padded with "ghosts" being "paid" by Afghan commanders who stole the wages.[346]
Desertion was a significant problem. One in every four combat soldiers quit the Afghan Army during the 12-month period ending in September 2009, according to data from the U.S. Defense Department and the Inspector General for Reconstruction in Afghanistan.[347]
Afghan National Police
The Afghan National Police provides support to the Afghan army. Police officers in Afghanistan are also largely illiterate. Approximately 17 percent of them tested positive for illegal drugs in 2010. They were widely accused of demanding bribes.[348] Attempts to build a credible Afghan police force were faltering badly, according to NATO officials.[349] A quarter of the officers quit every year, making the Afghan government's goals of substantially building up the police force even harder to achieve.[349]
Insider attacks
Beginning in 2011, insurgent forces in Afghanistan began using a tactic of insider attacks on ISAF and Afghan military forces. In the attacks, Taliban personnel or sympathizers belonging to, or pretending to belong to, the Afghan military or police forces attack ISAF personnel, often within the security of ISAF military bases and Afghan government facilities. In 2011, for example, 21 insider attacks killed 35 coalition personnel. Forty-six insider attacks killed 63 and wounded 85 coalition troops, mostly American, in the first 11 months of 2012.[350] The attacks continued but began diminishing towards the planned 31 December 2014 ending of combat operations in Afghanistan by ISAF. However, on 5 August 2014, a gunman in an Afghan military uniform opened fire on a number of international military personnel, killing a U.S. general and wounding about 15 officers and soldiers, including a German brigadier general and 8 U.S. troops, at a training base west of Kabul.[260]
Reactions
Domestic reactions
Polls of Afghans displayed strong opposition to the Taliban and significant support of the U.S. military presence. However the idea of permanent U.S. military bases was not popular in 2005.[351]
In a June 2009 Gallup survey, about half of Afghan respondents felt that additional U.S. forces would help stabilize the security situation in the southern provinces. But opinions varied widely; residents in the troubled South were mostly mixed or uncertain, while those in the West largely disagreed that more U.S. troops would help the situation.[353]
In December 2009, many Afghan tribal heads and local leaders from the south and east called for U.S. troop withdrawals. "I don't think we will be able to solve our problems with military force," said Muhammad Qasim, a Kandahar tribal elder. "We can solve them by providing jobs and development and by using local leaders to negotiate with the Taliban."[354] "If new troops come and are stationed in civilian areas, when they draw Taliban attacks civilians will end up being killed," said Gulbadshah Majidi, a lawmaker and close associate of Mr. Karzai. "This will only increase the distance between Afghans and their government."[355]
In late January 2010, Afghan protesters took to the streets for three straight days and blocked traffic on a highway that links Kabul and Kandahar. The Afghans were demonstrating in response to the deaths of four men in a NATO-Afghan raid in the village of Ghazni. Ghazni residents insisted that the dead were civilians.[356]
International reactions
Main article: International public opinion on the war in AfghanistanPublic opinion in 2001
A large-scale 37-nation poll of world opinion carried out by Gallup International in late September 2001 found that large majorities in most countries favored a legal response, in the form of extradition and trial, over a military response to 9/11: only three countries out of the 37 surveyed – the U.S., Israel and India – did majorities favor military action. In the other 34 countries surveyed, the poll found many clear majorities that favored extradition and trial instead of military action: in the United Kingdom (75%), France (67%), Switzerland (87%), Czech Republic (64%), Lithuania (83%), Panama (80%) and Mexico (94%).[358][359]
An Ipsos-Reid poll conducted between November and December 2001 showed that majorities in Canada (66%), France (60%), Germany (60%), Italy (58%), and the U.K. (65%) approved of U.S. airstrikes while majorities in Argentina (77%), China (52%), South Korea (50%), Spain (52%), and Turkey (70%) opposed them.[360]
Development of public opinion
A 24-nation Pew Global Attitudes survey in June 2008 similarly found that majorities or pluralities in 21 of 24 countries want the U.S. and NATO to remove their troops from Afghanistan as soon as possible. Only in three out of the 24 countries – the U.S. (50%), Australia (60%), and Britain (48%) – did public opinion lean more toward keeping troops there until the situation has stabilized.[363][364]
In the U.S., a September 2008 Pew survey found that 61% of Americans wanted U.S. troops to stay until the situation has stabilized, while 33% wanted them removed as soon as possible.[371] Public opinion was divided over Afghan troop requests: a majority of Americans continued to see a rationale for the use of military force in Afghanistan.[372] A slight plurality of Americans favored troop increases, with 42%–47% favoring some troop increases, 39%–44% wanting reduction, and 7–9% wanting no changes. Just 29% of Democrats favored troop increases while 57% wanted to begin reducing troops. Only 36% of Americans approved of Obama's handling of Afghanistan, including 19% of Republicans, 31% of independents, and 54% of Democrats.[373]
In a December 2009 Pew Research Center poll, only 32 percent of Americans favored increasing U.S. troops in Afghanistan, while 40 percent favored decreasing them. Almost half of Americans, 49 percent, believed that the U.S. should "mind its own business" internationally and let other countries get along the best they can. That figure was an increase from 30 percent who said that in December 2002.[374]
An April 2011 Pew Research Center poll showed little change in American views, with about 50% saying that the effort was going very well or fairly well and only 44% supporting NATO troop presence in Afghanistan.[375]
Protests, demonstrations and rallies
Further information: Opposition to the war in Afghanistan (2001–14) and Protests against the war in Afghanistan (2001–14)The war has been the subject of large protests around the world starting with the large-scale demonstrations in the days leading up to the invasion and every year since. Many protesters consider the bombing and invasion of Afghanistan to be unjustified aggression.[376][377] The deaths of Afghan civilians caused directly and indirectly by the U.S. and NATO bombing campaigns is a major underlying focus of the protests.[378] In January 2009, Brave New Foundation launched Rethink Afghanistan, a national campaign for non-violent solutions in Afghanistan built around a documentary film by director and political activist Robert Greenwald.[379] Dozens of organizations planned (and eventually held) a national march for peace in Washington, D.C. on 20 March 2010.[380][381]
Human rights abuses
Main article: Human rights in AfghanistanMultiple accounts document human rights violations in Afghanistan.[382]
Taliban
According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009.[280] The Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIGRC) called the Taliban's terrorism against the Afghan civilian population a war crime.[40] According to Amnesty International, the Taliban commit war crimes by targeting civilians, including killing teachers, abducting aid workers and burning school buildings. Amnesty International said that up to 756 civilians were killed in 2006 by bombs, mostly on roads or carried by suicide attackers belonging to the Taliban.[383] Some religious leaders have condemned Taliban terrorist attacks and said these kinds of attacks are against Islamic ethics.[40]
NATO has alleged that the Taliban have used civilians as human shields. As an example, NATO pointed to the victims of NATO air strikes in Farah province in May 2009, during which the Afghan government claims up to 150 civilians were killed. NATO stated it had evidence the Taliban forced civilians into buildings likely to be targeted by NATO aircraft involved in the battle. A spokesman for the ISAF commander said: "This was a deliberate plan by the Taliban to create a civilian casualty crisis. These were not human shields; these were human sacrifices. We have intelligence that points to this."[384] The Taliban committed human rights violations against women in Afghanistan, according to the U.S. State Department.[385]
White phosphorus use
White phosphorus has been condemned by human rights organizations as cruel and inhumane because it causes severe burns. White phosphorus burns on the bodies of civilians wounded in clashes near Bagram were confirmed. The U.S. claims at least 44 instances in which militants have used white phosphorus in weapons or attacks.[386] In May 2009, the U.S. confirmed that Western military forces in Afghanistan use white phosphorus to illuminate targets or as an incendiary to destroy bunkers and enemy equipment.[387][388] US forces used white phosphorus to screen a retreat in the Battle of Ganjgal when regular smoke munitions were not available.[389] The Afghan government investigated the use of white phosphorus munitions.[390]
Environmental legacy
Since 1979 landmines, shells, bombs, and other unexploded ordnance has been left behind. In 2015 the NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was replaced by the US-led "Resolute Support" The director of the Mine Action Coordination Centre for Afghanistan (MACCA). ISAF stressed it had never used landmines.
See also
References
- http://www.rs.nato.int/troop-numbers-and-contributions/index.php Troop numbers and contributions as of May 2015
- Synovitz, Ron (13 May 2009). "Investigation Launched Into White Phosphorus Claims In Afghanistan". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
Sources
- Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-007-6.
- Girardet, Edward (2011). Killing the Cranes: A Reporter's Journey Through Three Decades of War in Afghanistan (3 August 2011 ed.). Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 416.
- 911 Commission (20 September 2004). "National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States". Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
- Risen, James (4 September 2008). State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration. Simon & Schuster UK. ISBN 978-1-84737-511-7.
- Auerswald, David P. & Stephen M. Saideman, eds. NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone (Princeton U.P. 2014) This book breaks down the history of the U.S. effort in Afghanistan down by deployed commander. Also useful in this fashion are Kaplan, "The Insurgents", and "A Different Kind of War."
- Stewart, Richard W. (2004). Operation Enduring Freedom. BG John S. Brown. United States Army. p. 46.
- AEI (24 July 2008). "America and the War on Terror". AEI Public Opinion Study.
- Call, Steve (15 January 2010). Danger Close. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-304-3.
- Woodward, Bob (27 September 2010). Obama's Wars. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-7251-3.
Further reading
- "Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War". by Robert Gates. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.
- "U.S. War in Afghanistan". Council on Foreign Relations. 2014.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to War in Afghanistan (2001–present). |
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Categories:
- War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
- 21st century in Afghanistan
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- Wars involving Georgia (country)
Tomei, Lizzy (22 January 2015). "It's 2015. Time for some new U.S. operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.". The Week. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
Ackerman, Spencer (30 September 2014). "New Afghanistan pact means America's longest war will last until at least 2024". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
Munoz, Carlos (8 January 2015). "Expect more US casualties in Afghanistan, top NATO commander says". Stars & Stripes. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
"U.S. War in Afghanistan". NBCNews.com. NBC News Digital. 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Lamothe, Dan (6 January 2015). "This new graphic shows the state of the U.S. war in Afghanistan". Washington post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Matt Doeden; Blake Hoena (1 January 2014). War in Afghanistan: An Interactive Modern History Adventure. Capstone. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4765-5221-7.
Michael Cox; Doug Stokes (9 February 2012). US Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-19-958581-6.
Robert M. Cassidy (Ph.D.) (2004). Peacekeeping in the Abyss: British and American Peacekeeping Doctrine and Practice After the Cold War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-275-97696-5.
"French troops Afghanistan: Nicolas Sarkozy announces France to withdraw 1,000 troops from Afghanistan by end of 2012". The Telegraph (London). 12 July 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
"Afghanistan : Sarkozy confirme le retrait de 1 000 soldats français d'ici à fin 2012 (french)/ Sarkozy confirms that 1.000 soldiers will be withdrawn by the end of 2012". Le Monde. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
"Nato admits 'error' in claim of fall in Taliban attacks". BBC News. 26 February 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jennifer Griffin; Justin Fishel (26 February 2013). "US military acknowledges reported drop in Taliban attacks was incorrect". Fox News. Associated Press. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Phil Stewart (26 February 2013). "Afghan insurgent attacks misreported, did not fall in 2012: NATO". Reuters. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Ackerman, Spencer (26 February 2013). "'Data-Entry Error' Led Military to Falsely Claim Taliban Attacks Are Down". Wired. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Sudarsan Raghavan and Karen DeYoung (30 September 2014). "U.S. and Afghanistan sign vital, long-delayed security pact". The Washington Post (The Washington Post). Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Kay Johnson, Raissa Kasolowsky, Michael Perry and Kevin Liffey. "Britain ends combat role in Afghanistan, last US Marines hand over base". Reuters (Reuters). Reuters. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Loyn, David (26 October 2014). "What have British troops achieved in Afghanistan?". BBC News Asia (BBC News Asia). Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Lamothe, Dan (29 December 2014). "Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new mission in Afghanistan". Washington Post. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
"18 Suspected insurgents slain in NATO airstrike in Afghanistan". Fox News Latino. Reuters. 3 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
"Afghans Take Over Country's Security". Voice of America. 1 January 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
Ryan, Missy (10 February 2015). "White House weighs adjusting Afghan exit plan to slow withdrawal of troops". Washington Post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Eberspacher, Sarah (21 February 2015). "New Defense Secretary Carter says U.S. may slow Afghan troop withdrawal". The Week. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Gul, Ayaz (21 February 2015). "New Pentagon Chief in Kabul Talks With Afghan President". Voice of America. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
"U.S. commander proposes slower Afghan withdrawal". The Japan Times. Agence France-Presse. 13 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Tan, Michelle (27 February 2015). "Army announces new Afghanistan deployments". ArmyTimes (Gannett). Retrieved 28 February 2015.
Craig, Tim (23 May 2015). "NATO hopes to keep a base in Afghanistan, U.S. general says". The Washington Post. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
Gabriela Motroc (7 April 2015). "U.S. War on Terror has reportedly killed 1.3 million people in a decade". Australian National Review.
"220,000 killed in US war in Afghanistan 80,000 in Pakistan: report". Daily Times. 30 March 2015.
"Afghan refugees abandoned by their own government, report finds: About half a million Afghans who fled homes because of violence are living in desperate conditions, says Amnesty", The Guardian, 23 February 2012
"This is a war crime and people will be held responsible in the future for this war crime," said Ján Kubiš, the U.N.'s man in Afghanistan.
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