Autonomous cruise control system

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Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically follows the blue car.
External video
 Adaptive Cruise Control Audi example video.
Autonomous cruise control (ACC; also called adaptive cruise control, radar cruise control, traffic-aware cruise control or dynamic radar cruise control) is an optional cruise control system for road vehicles that automatically adjusts the vehicle speed to maintain a safe distance from vehicles ahead.
Control is based on sensor information from on-board sensors. (No existing system makes use of satellite or roadside infrastructures nor of cooperative support from other vehicles.) Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) further extends the automation of navigation by using information gathered from fixed infrastructure such as satellites and roadside beacons, or mobile infrastructure such as reflectors or transmitters on the back of other vehicles.[citation needed]
Such systems may use a radar or laser sensor or a stereo camera setup allowing the vehicle to brake when it detects the car is approaching another vehicle ahead, then accelerate when traffic allows it to.
ACC technology is widely regarded as a key component of any future generations of intelligent cars. They impact driver safety and convenience as well as increasing capacity of roads by maintaining optimal separation between vehicles and reducing driver errors. Vehicles with autonomous cruise control are considered a Level 1 autonomous car, as defined by SAE International.[1]

Types[edit]

The Jeep adaptive cruise control radar sensor located in the center of the lower grill
Autonomous cruise control on VW Golf
Laser-based systems do not detect and track vehicles in adverse weather conditions nor do they reliably track dirty (and therefore non-reflective) vehicles. Laser-based sensors must be exposed, the sensor (a fairly large black box) is typically found in the lower grille, offset to one side.
Radar-based sensors can be hidden behind plastic fascias; however, the fascias may look different from a vehicle without the feature. For example, Mercedes-Benz packages the radar behind the upper grille in the center and behind a solid plastic panel that has painted slats to simulate the look of the rest of the grille.
Single radar systems are the most common. Systems involving multiple sensors use either two similar hardware sensors like the 2010 Audi A8[2] or the 2010 Volkswagen Touareg,[3] or one central long range radar coupled with two short radar sensors placed on the corners of the vehicle like the BMW 5 and 6 series.[4]
A more recent development is the binocular computer vision system, such as that introduced to the US market in model year 2013 by Subaru. These systems have front-facing video cameras mounted on either side of the rear view mirror and use digital processing to extract depth information from the parallax between the two cameras' views.

Assisting systems[edit]

Radar-based ACC often feature a precrash system, which warns the driver and/or provides brake support if there is a high risk of a collision. Also in certain cars it is incorporated with a lane maintaining system which provides a power steering assist to reduce steering input burden on corners when the cruise control system is activated.

Multi-sensor systems[edit]

Systems with multiple sensors can practice sensor fusion to integrate the data from to improve safety and/or driving experience. GPS data can inform the system of geographic features such as a freeway offramp. A camera system could notice driver behavior such as brake lights and/or a turn signal. This could allow a following car to interpret a turn signal by an exit as not requiring the following car to slow down, as the leading car will exit.[5] Multi-sensor systems could also take note of traffic signs/signals and not, e.g., violate a red light while following a vehicle that crossed before the signal changed.

Predictive systems[edit]

Predict systems modify speed based on predictions of other vehicles' behavior. Such systems can make earlier, more moderate adjustments to the predicted behavior, improving safety and passenger comfort. One example is to predict the likelihood of a vehicle in a neighbouring lane moving in front of the controlled vehicle. One system predicts a lane change up to five seconds before it occurs.[6]

Timeline[edit]

Distronic Plus display on Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)
ACC radar antenna
  • 1992: Mitsubishi was the first to offer a lidar-based distance detection system on the Japanese market with its Debonair. Marketed as "Distance Warning", this early system warns the driver, without influencing throttle, brakes or gearshifting.[7][8]
  • 1995: Mitsubishi Diamante introduced laser "Preview Distance Control". This early system controlled speed through throttle control and downshifting, not by applying the brakes.[7][9]
  • 1997: Toyota offered a "laser adaptive cruise control" (lidar) system on the Japanese market Celsior.[10] It controlled speed through throttle control and downshifting, not by applying the brakes.
  • 1999: Mercedes introduced "Distronic", the first radar-assisted ACC[citation needed], on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) [11][12] and the CL-Class.[13]
  • 1999: Jaguar began offering a radar-based Adaptive Cruise Control system on the Jaguar XK (X100).[14]
  • 1999: Nissan introduced laser (lidar) Adaptive Cruise Control on the Japanese market Nissan Cima.[15]
  • 2000: BMW introduced radar "Active Cruise Control" in Europe on the BMW 7 Series - E38.[16]
  • 2000: The Lexus division of Toyota was the first to bring laser ACC to the US market in late 2000, with the LS 430's Dynamic Laser Cruise Control system.[17]
  • 2000: Toyota further refined their laser ACC system by adding "brake control", that also applies brakes.[10]
  • 2001: Infiniti introduced laser "Intelligent Cruise Control" on the 2002 Infiniti Q45 Third generation F50 and 2002 Infiniti QX4.
  • 2001: Renault introduced Adaptive Cruise Control on the Renault Vel Satis[18] (supplied by Bosch[19])
  • 2002: Lancia introduced radar adaptive cruise control (by Bosch) on the Lancia Thesis[20]
  • 2002: Volkswagen introduced radar ACC, manufactured by Autocruise (now TRW), on the Volkswagen Phaeton.
  • 2002: Audi introduced radar Adaptive cruise control (Autocruise) on the Audi A8 in late 2002
  • 2003: Cadillac introduced radar ACC on the Cadillac XLR.[21]
  • 2003: Toyota shifted from laser (lidar) to radar ACC technology on the Celsior.[10] The first Lexus Dynamic Radar Cruise Control and a radar-guided pre-collision system appeared on the Lexus LS(XF30) US market facelift.[22]
  • 2004: Toyota added "low-speed tracking mode" to the radar ACC on the Crown Majesta.[10] The low-speed speed tracking mode was a second mode that would warn the driver and provide braking if the car ahead stopped; it could stop the car, but would then deactivate.[23]
  • 2005: In the United States, Acura first introduced radar ACC integrated with a Collision avoidance system (Collision Mitigation Braking System (CMBS)) in the model year 2006 Acura RL.[24]
  • 2005: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) refined the Distronic system to completely halt the car if necessary (now called "Distronic Plus" on E-Class and most Mercedes sedans.
  • 2006: Volkswagen Passat B6 introduced ACC. They use radar from Autocruise and TRW, range of speed for ACC 30–210 km/h. Supported additional function AWV1 and AWV2 to prevent collision, it used the brake system.
  • 2006: Audi introduced Full speed range ACC plus on the Audi Q7. It had low-speed mode, warns the driver of a potential collision, and prepare emergency braking as needed.[25] The system supplied by Bosch was available in the 2008 Audi A8, the Audi Q5, 2009 Audi A6 and the new 2010 Audi A8. The Audi A4 was available with an older version of the ACC that did not stop the car completely.
  • 2006: Nissan introduced "Intelligent Cruise Control with Distance Control Assist" on Nissan Fuga.[26] It pushes the gas pedal against the foot when the navigation system observes an unsafe speed. If the Autonomous cruise control system is used, the Distance Control Assistance reduced speed automatically, and warned the driver that with an audible bell sound.
  • 2006: September 2006 Toyota introduced its "all-speed tracking function" for the Lexus LS 460.[10] This radar-assisted system maintained continuous control from speeds of 0 km/h to 100 km/h and is designed to work under stop/go situations such as highway traffic congestion.[27]
  • 2007: BMW introduced full-speed Active Cruise Control Stop-and-Go on the BMW 5 Series (E60).[28]
  • 2008: Lincoln introduced radar adaptive cruise control on the 2009 Lincoln MKS.
  • 2008: SsangYong Motor Company introduced radar "Active Cruise Control" on the SsangYong Chairman[29]
  • 2008: Volkswagen Passat CC, B6 and Touareg GP. Current ACC system updated. Range of speed for ACC 30–210 km/h, but now it supports full auto stop (follow to stop). Added Front Assist function to prevent collision and it works separately of ACC. Front Assist cannot brake automatically, it only increases the pressure in the brake system and warns the driver.
  • 2008: Volkswagen Golf 6 introduce ACC with lidar.
  • 2009: Hyundai introduced radar Adaptive cruise control on Hyundai Equus in Korean market.
  • 2009: ACC and CMBS also became available as optional features in the model year the 2010 Acura MDX[30] Mid Model Change (MMC) and the newly introduced model year 2010 Acura ZDX.[31]
  • 2010: Audi world first GPS-guided radar ACC on Audi A8#D4[5]
  • 2010: Volkswagen Passat B7, CC. Next update of ACC and updated Front Assist. Introduced emergency braking, named "City". Car could brake automatically to prevent collision. Speed range for ACC 30–210 km/h with support full auto stop.
  • 2010: Jeep introduced Adaptive Cruise Control on the 2011 Jeep Grand Cherokee[32]
  • 2013: Mercedes introduced "Distronic Plus with Steering Assist" (traffic jam assist) on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222)[33]
  • 2013: BMW introduced Active Cruise Control with Traffic Jam Assistant.[34]
  • 2014: Chrysler introduced full speed range radar "Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop+" on the 2015 Chrysler 200.
  • 2014: Tesla introduced autopilot feature to Model S cars, enabling semi-autonomous cruise control.[35][36][37]
  • 2015: Ford introduced first pickup truck with Adaptive Cruise Control on the 2015 Ford F150
  • 2015: Honda introduced its European CR-V 2015 with predictive cruise control.[6]

Vehicle models supporting adaptive cruise control[edit]

The three main categories of ACC are:
  • Vehicles with Full Speed Range 0MPH are able to bring the car to a full stop to 0 mph and need to be re-activated to continue moving with something like a tap of the gas pedal.
  • Vehicles with Traffic Jam Assist / Stop & Go auto resume from standstill to creep with stop and go traffic.
  • Vehicles with Partial cruise control cuts off & turns off below a set minimum speed, requiring driver intervention.
  • Vehicles with fully automated speed control can respond to traffic signals and non-vehicular on-road activity.
MakeFull speed range ACCPartial cruise control
ModelsNotesModelsNotes
AftermarketAny Vehicle 1990+Uses OpenCV with no braking.
Motor Authority Review [38]
AcuraRLX (2014+), MDX (2014+), TLX(2015+)2005 RL, MDX, ZDX, 2016 MDX is 0 mph type, 2016 ILX,[39]RDX[40]
Alfa RomeoGiulia (2016+)Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go [41]
AudiA8, A7 (2010+), A6 (2011+); Q7 (2007+), A3 Prestige (2013+), Q5 (2013+)Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & GoA3, A4, A5, Q5, A6, A8 (also uses data from navigation and front camera sensors),[42] Q7
BentleyContinental GT (2009+)Follow-to-Stop option
BMW5-series (2007+), 7-series (2009+), X5 (2011+)[43] excl Diesel, 3-series (2013+), i3 (2014+), X3 (2014+)Active Cruise Control with Stop & GoSeries 7, 5, 6, 3 (2000+), Mini (2014+)Stop & Go/Lane Assist controls steering for up to 30 seconds of hands-off driving. Highway driving only. Available on 3, 5, 6 and 7 models.
Active Cruise Control[44]
BuickLacrosse (2014+) [45]
CadillacXTS, ATS, SRX (2013+), CTS (2014+), ELR, Escalade (2015+ Premium trim)Also includes full power automatic braking under 20 mph2004 XLR, 2005 STS, 2006 DTS (shuts off below 25 mph)
ChevroletImpala (2014+), Malibu (2016+), Volt(2017+)Tahoe/Suburban (2015+)
Chrysler200c (2015+), 300 (2015+ in S, C, or C Platinum trims), Pacifica (2015+ in Touring L Plus or Limited trims)Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go.[46]2007–2014 300Claser, for a limited time, now uses a Bosch radar-based system
DodgeCharger, Challenger (2015+)2011 Charger, 2011 Durangoradar, by Bosch
FordEverest (2015+, Trend and Titanium models only),[47] Fusion (2017+)Adaptive cruise control with stop-and-go (optional)2015+ F150 [48] 2011+Explorer, 2017+ Fiesta, 2013+ Ford FLEX, 2006 Mondeo, 2013 Kuga, 2013+ Fusion, S-Max, Galaxy, 2010+ Taurus, 2011+ EdgeDisables and does not work or brake under 20 mph; - Radar[49] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
HondaAvailable with Honda Sensing package (2016+)Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) with Low-Speed Follow2003 Inspire, 2005 Legend, 2013 Accord (USA), 2007 CR-Vseries III, 2015 Honda CRV, 2016 Honda Pilot [50]Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Mitigating Braking System with Honda Sensing [51]
HyundaiAzera (2011+), Equus (2012+), Genesis(2015+), Sonata (2015+), Santa Fe (2017+), Santa Fe Sport (2017+), Ioniq (2017+)Genesis (2010+), Elantra (2017+)
InfinitiEX (2010+)*, Q50 (2014+)older laser based system*2006 EX, M, Q45, QX56, G35, FX35/45/50, G37shuts off below 3 mph, EX: in North America as an option, shuts off below 40 km/h
Jaguar1999 XK-R, S-Type, XJ, XF
JeepCherokee (2014+, Limited and TrailHawk Models), Grand Cherokee (2012+)[52]Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) - Stop/Start again option on 2017 models but not prior models.2011–2013 Grand Cherokee (Option on Limited & Overland, standard on Summit)radar, by Bosch
disengages below 15 mph[53]
KiaCadenza (2014+), Sedona (2015+), K900 (2015+), Optima (2016+), Sorento (2016+), Niro (2017+)Advanced Smart Cruise Control (ASCC)
Land RoverRange Rover (2013+)Range Rover Sport
LincolnContinental (2017+),[54] MKZ (2017+)[55]Adaptive cruise control with stop-and-go.MKS (2009+), MKT (2010+), MKX (2011+), MKZ (2013+), MKC (2015+)Radar[49] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
LexusLS 460 (2006+), GS hybrid (2013+), GS non-hybrid (2016+), RX (2016+), RX hybrid (2016+), NX (2015+), NX hybrid (2015+)Dynamic Radar Cruise Control
LS 460 full ACC not available in US until 2013		2000 LS430/460 (laser and radar), RX (laser and radar), GS, IS, ES 350, and LX 570 (shuts off below 25 mph)
MazdaCX-5 (2017+)[56]Mazda6 (2014+), Mazda3, CX-5 (2016+)Radar Cruise Control and Forward Obstruction Warning[57]
MitsubishiOutlander (2014+)
Mercedes-BenzS (2006+), B, E, CLS, CL (2009+); A, CLA, M, G, GL (2013+)Distronic Plus1998 S, E, CLS, SL, CL, M, GL, CLK, 2012 CDistronic
NissanMurano (2015+), Maxima (2016+), Altima(2016+), Sentra (2017+), Leaf (2018+)Stops vehicle but resets after 3 seconds, requiring brake application to sit still and setting cruise speed again.1998 Cima, Primera T-Spec ModelsIntelligent Cruise Control
PorschePanamera (2010+); Cayenne (2011+), Cayman (2013+), Boxster(2012+)Porsche Active Safe (PAS), PDK transmission only.
SeatLeón (2012+), Ateca [58]
SkodaOctavia (2013+), Fabia (2014+), Superb (2014+)
SubaruLegacy, Outback (2013+), Forester (2014+), Impreza (2015+), WRX (2016+), Crosstrek (2016+)0 mph EyeSight[59][60] Non-Radar Camera System
SuzukiSwift 2017+Vitara (2015+), Sx4 Scross (2016+)radar
TeslaModel S (late 2014+), Model XTraffic-Aware Cruise Control(TACC)[61]
ToyotaPrius + Prius Prime (2016+), Camry (2018+), C-HR (2018+), Avalon (2017+), Land Cruiser (2018+), Rav 4 (2017+) R[62]1997 Celsior, 2004 Sienna (XLE Limited Edition), Avalon, Sequoia (Platinum Edition), Avensis, 2009 Corolla(Japan),[63] 2017+ Corolla,[64] 2010 Prius, 2013+ Prius v,[65]2014+ Highlander,[66] 2015+ Camry,[67] 2016+ RAV4[68]Dynamic Laser Cruise Control (DLCC) on 2009+ Sienna XLE Limited, Avalon Limited and Sequoia Platinum shuts off below 25 mph (US)[69]
Vauxhall / OpelInsignia, Zafira Tourer (on selected variants of SE, SRi, Elite, VXR), Astra
VolkswagenPhaeton (2010+), Passat B8 (2014+), Touareg (2011+) Golf Mk7 (2013+), Polo(2014+), Jetta (2016+ SEL Trim), Tiguan SEL (2018+), ATLAS SEL (2018+)Tiguan SEL and ATLAS SEL (2018+) ACC stop-and-goPassat, Phaeton all generations, Touareg
VolvoAll Volvo models 2015+
Also before 2015 ACC was available on V40, S60,[70] V60, XC60, V70, XC70 and S80
ACC also includes automatic braking. Newest models feature full power auto-brake with pedestrian and cyclist detection.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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External links[edit]