Monday, May 19, 2014

MBA?

I was writing a previous blog article about my wife having three degrees including an MBA. I suddenly realized that many of you reading this around the world might not know what that is:
So, an MBA is A Master's Degree in Business Administration. In my wife's case she got an MBA specializing in managing Non-Profits. So, below I put wikipedia word buttons and a full explanation of what an MBA is and what a nonprofit organization is in the U.S.

Master of Business Administration - Wikipedia, the free ...

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration
Wikipedia
The Master of Business Administration (MBA or M.B.A.) is a master's degree in business administration. The MBA degree originated in the United States in the ...
‎List of United States graduate - ‎Course - ‎MBA (disambiguation)
 

Nonprofit organization - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprofit_organization
Wikipedia
A nonprofit organization (NPO) or not-for-profit organization is an organization that uses surplus revenues to achieve its goals rather than distributing them as ...
‎Economic surplus - ‎Charitable organization - ‎501(c) - ‎Master of Nonprofit ...
 

Master of Business Administration

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"MBA" redirects here. For other uses, see MBA (disambiguation).
The Master of Business Administration (MBA or M.B.A.) is a master's degree in business administration. The MBA degree originated in the United States in the late 19th century when the country industrialized and companies sought scientific approaches to management. The core courses in an MBA program introduce the various areas of business such as accounting, finance, marketing, human resources and operations management; many programs include elective courses.
Accreditation bodies specifically for MBA programs ensure consistency and quality of education. Business schools in many countries offer programs tailored to full-time, part-time, executive, and distance learning students, with specialized concentrations.

History

The first graduate school of business in the United States was the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College.[1] Founded in 1900, it conferred the first advanced degree in business, specifically, a Master of Science in Commerce, the predecessor to the MBA.[2]
The MBA degree has been adopted by universities worldwide in both developed and developing countries.[14]

Accreditation

Business school or MBA program accreditation by external agencies provides students and employers with an independent view of the school or program's quality, as well as whether the curriculum meets specific quality standards. The three major accrediting bodies in the United States are:
All of these groups also accredit schools outside the US. The AACSB, the ACBSP, and the IACBE are themselves recognized in the United States by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA).[16] MBA programs with specializations for students pursuing careers in healthcare management also eligible for accreditation by the Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education (CAHME).
US MBA programs may also be accredited at the institutional level. Bodies that accredit institutions as a whole include:
Accreditation agencies outside the United States include the Association of MBAs (AMBA), a UK-based organization that accredits MBA, DBA and MBM programs worldwide, government accreditation bodies such as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), which accredits MBA and PGDM programs across India. Some of the leading bodies in India that certify MBA institutions and their programs are the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and the University Grants Commission (UGC). A distance MBA program needs to be accredited by the Distance Education Council (DEC) in India. The Council on Higher Education (CHE) in South Africa, the European Foundation for Management Development operates the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS) for mostly European and Asian schools, the Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation (FIBAA), and Central and East European Management Development Association (CEEMAN) in Europe.

Programs

Two-year (Full Time) MBA programs normally take place over two academic years (i.e. approximately 18 months of term time). For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, they often begin in late August/September of year one and continue until May of year two, with a three- to four-month summer break in between years one and two. Students enter with a reasonable amount of prior real-world work experience and take classes during weekdays like other university students. A typical Full-time, accelerated, part-time or modular MBA requires 60 credits (600 class hours) of graduate work.
Accelerated MBA programs are a variation of the two-year programs. They involve a higher course load with more intense class and examination schedules. They usually have less "down time" during the program and between semesters. For example, there is no three- to four-month summer break, and between semesters there might be seven to ten days off rather than three to five weeks vacation.
Part-time MBA programs normally hold classes on weekday evenings, after normal working hours, or on weekends. Part-time programs normally last three years or more. The students in these programs typically consist of working professionals, who take a light course load for a longer period of time until the graduation requirements are met.
Modular MBA programs are similar to part-time programs, although typically employing a lock-step curriculum with classes packaged together in blocks lasting from one to three weeks.
Executive MBA (EMBA) programs developed to meet the educational needs of managers and executives, allowing students to earn an MBA or another business-related graduate degree in two years or less while working full-time. Participants come from every type and size of organization – profit, nonprofit, government – representing a variety of industries. EMBA students typically have a higher level of work experience, often 10 years or more, compared to other MBA students. In response to the increasing number of EMBA programs offered, The Executive MBA Council was formed in 1981 to advance executive education.
Full Time Executive MBA programs are a new category of full-time 1 year MBA programs aimed at professionals with approx. 5 years or more. They are primarily offered in countries like India where the 2 year MBA program is targeted at fresh graduates with no experience or minimal experience. These full-time executive MBA programs are similar to 1 year MBA programs offered by schools like Insead and IMD.
Distance learning MBA programs hold classes off-campus. These programs can be offered in a number of different formats: correspondence courses by postal mail or email, non-interactive broadcast video, pre-recorded video, live teleconference or videoconference, offline or online computer courses. Many schools offer these programs.
Blended learning programs combine distance learning with face-to-face instruction.[18] These programs typically target working professionals who are unable to attend traditional part-time programs.[19]
Dual MBA programs combine a MBA with others (such as an MS, MA, or a J.D., etc.) to let students cut costs (dual programs usually cost less than pursuing 2 degrees separately), save time on education and to tailor the business education courses to their needs. Some business schools offer programs in which students can earn both a bachelor's degree in business administration and an MBA in four or five years.
Mini-MBA is a term used by many non-profit and for-profit institutions to describe a training regimen focused on the fundamentals of business. In the past, Mini-MBA programs have typically been offered as non-credit bearing courses that require less than 100 hours of total learning. However, due to the criticisms of these certificates, many schools have now shifted their programs to offer courses for full credit so that may be applied towards a complete traditional MBA degree. This is to allow students to verify business related coursework for employment purposes and still allow the option complete a full-time MBA degree program at a later period if they elect to do so.

Admissions criteria

Many programs base their admission decisions on a combination of Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), a resume containing significant work experience, academic transcripts, essays, references and letters of recommendation or personal interviews. The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is also accepted by some schools in lieu of the GMAT.[20] Some schools are also interested in extracurricular activities, community service activities and how the student can improve the school's diversity and contribute to the student body as a whole. All of these qualifications can be important for admission; however, some schools do not weigh GMAT scores as heavily as other criteria, and some distance learning programs do not require the GMAT for admission. In order to achieve a diverse class, business schools also consider the target male-female ratio and local-international student ratios. Some MBA degrees do not require students to have an undergraduate degree and will accept experience in lieu of an undergraduate degree. In the UK for example an HND or even HNC is acceptable in some programs.
Depending on the program, type and length of work experience can be a critical admissions component for many MBA programs.[21] Many top-tier programs require five or more years of work experience for admission.[22][23]

Content

In general,[24] MBA programs are structured around core courses (an essentially standard curriculum[25]), typically taken at the start of the MBA, and elective courses allowing for a subject specialty or concentration. Thus, in the program's first part (first year), students will acquire the analytical tools necessary for academic training in the key management functions, as well as a working knowledge of these functions; while in the second part (second year) students pursue a specialized curriculum. Full-time students generally seek an internship during the interim. The degree culminates with coursework in Business Strategy. A dissertation or "Major Project" is usually a degree requirement, and similarly follows the completion of coursework. Topics in Business ethics may be included in the first or second part (or both), with a correspondingly different focus. For Executive MBAs, the curriculum will be largely similar, but the focus will differ, taking on a macro view, and emphasizing real-world applicability, in contrast with the more fundamental and functional orientation of traditional programs.[26]
Programs are designed such that students gain exposure to theory and practice alike.[27] Learning is then through lectures, case studies, and team projects (“syndicate” work); the mix though, will differ by school[28] and by format. The theory is covered in the classroom setting by academic faculty, and is then reinforced, and revisited, also in the classroom setting, through the case method, placing the student in the role of the decision maker, "complete with the constraints and incomplete information found in real business issues". Practical learning (“Field Immersion”) often comprises consulting projects with real clients, and is generally undertaken in teams. The practical elements (as well as the case studies) often involve external practitioners - sometimes business executives - supporting the teaching from academic faculty.
MBA Course Structure
Core
Analytical accounting, economics, operations research, organizational behavior, statistics
Functional financial management, human resource management, marketing management, operations management
Ethics Business ethics, corporate social responsibility, corporate governance
Specialization entrepreneurship, finance (including corporate finance and investment management), international business, management information systems, management science, marketing, operations management, organizational design, project management, real estate, risk management and strategy, among others.
Capstone Strategy Business Strategy, Business Leadership
Research research methodology, Dissertation/ Major Project
The specialization and typical[25] core courses are as aside. The analytical courses may treat financial- and management accounting separately, and often focus on managerial economics as opposed to the more traditional introductory treatment. Business law and tax may also be included. Operations research and statistics are often combined as "Managerial Decision-Making" or "Quantitative Decision-Making"; organizational behavior and human resource management may similarly be combined. In many programs, applicants with appropriate background may be exempt from the analytical coursework.
For the functional courses, some programs specify further advanced coursework. Here, the first (sub-)course provides an overview, while the second revisits the subject in depth. Alternatively, the first addresses short-term, tactical problems, while the second addresses long-term, strategic problems (e.g. "Financial Management I" covers working capital management, while part II covers capital investment decisions). In these cases, the additional work is accommodated either via an extended first part, or offered in parallel to the specialization. Information systems / technology is often included as a functional course. Ethics training is often coupled with coursework in corporate social responsibility and corporate governance.
Programs may also include (coursework-based) training in the skills needed at senior levels of management: soft skills, such as (general) leadership and negotiation; hard skills, such as spreadsheets, project management and foreign languages; thinking skills such as innovation and creativity. Training in areas such as multiculturalism, corporate governance and corporate social responsibility is similarly included. Company visits (including overseas travel), and guest lectures or seminars with CEOs and management personalities may also be included. These, with the core subjects, provide the graduate with "breadth", while the specialty courses provide "depth".
For the Business Strategy component, the degree “capstone”, the focus is on the long-term positioning and management of the entity as a whole — i.e. business administration proper — and the key functions are thus synthesized and / or integrated into an overall view. Corresponding training in business leadership may also be scheduled, while related participation in a business simulation or -game is a common degree requirement. "Strategy" may be offered as a sequence of courses, beginning in the first part (planning) and culminating in the second (execution), or as a single intensive course, offered during the second part. A specialization in “strategy” is not always offered; management consulting (or the like) is often offered instead, and substantially addresses the same issues.
The MBA Dissertation (or Thesis in some universities) will, in general, comprise the following in some combination:[29] a discussion of the literature, providing a critical review and structuring of what is known, with a view to addressing a specific problem; a case study that goes beyond simple description, containing the analysis of hitherto unpublished material; a test of the application or limitations of some known principle or technique in a particular situation, and / or suggested modifications. As an alternative to the Dissertation, some programs instead allow for a "Major Project".[30] Here (part-time) students will address a problem current in their organization; particularly in programs with an action learning orientation, these may be practically oriented.[30] Most MBA programs require additional course work in research methodology, preceding the dissertation or project. Some programs allow that the research component as a whole may be substituted with additional elective coursework.

Europe

Main article: List of business schools in Europe

History

In 1957, INSEAD (French name "INStitut Européen d'ADministration des Affaires", or European Institute of Business Administration) became the first European university offering the MBA degree,[31] followed in 1959 by ESADE, EDHEC Business School and ICADE in 1960 (who had started offering in 1956 a "Technical Seminary for Business Administration"),[32] IESE (first two-year program in Europe) in 1964, UCD Smurfit Business School and Cranfield School of Management in 1964, Manchester Business School and London Business School in 1965, The University of Dublin (Trinity College), the Rotterdam School of Management in 1966, the Vlerick Business School in 1968[33] and in 1969 by the HEC School of Management (in French, the École des Hautes Études Commerciales) and the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris. In 1972, Swiss business school IMEDE (now IMD) began offering a full-time MBA program, followed in 1974 by AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow, Poland. EADA Business School in 1989. In 1991, IEDC-Bled School of Management became the first school in the ex-socialist block of the Central and Eastern to offer an MBA degree. Because of technology advances, distance or online MBA programs have recently emerged in Europe. Several business schools in the United Kingdom now offer distance MBA programs. In 2007, ESCEM became the first French Business school to offer their own distance or online MBA.

Bologna Accord

In Europe, the recent Bologna Accord established uniformity in three levels of higher education: Bachelor (three or four years), Masters (one or two years, in addition to three or four years for a Bachelor), and Doctorate (an additional three or four years after a Bachelors). Students can acquire professional experience after their initial bachelor degree at any European institution and later complete their masters in any other European institution via the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System.

Accreditation standards

Accreditation standards are not uniform in Europe. Some countries have legal requirements for accreditation (e.g. most German states), in some there is a legal requirement only for universities of a certain type (e.g. Austria), and others have no accreditation law at all. Even where there is no legal requirement, many business schools are accredited by independent bodies voluntarily to ensure quality standards.

Austria

In Austria, MBA programs of private universities have to be accredited by the Austrian Accreditation Council (Österreichischer Akkreditierungsrat). State-run universities have no accreditation requirements, however, some of them voluntarily undergo accreditation procedures by independent bodies. There are also MBA programs of non-academic business schools, who are entitled by the Austrian government to offer these programs until the end of 2012 (Lehrgang universitären Charakters). Some non-academic institutions cooperate with state-run universities to ensure legality of their degrees.

Czech Republic

January 1999 saw the first meeting of the Association of the Czech MBA Schools (CAMBAS). The Association is housed within the Centre for Doctoral and Managerial Studies of UEP, Prague. All of the founding members of the Association to have their MBA programs accredited by partner institutions in the United Kingdom or United States of America.

Finland

In Finland, as in most countries, MBA does not have the status of official degree. MBA programs are run by various universities including the top universities in the country.

France and French speaking countries

In France and in the Francophone countries such as Switzerland, Monaco, Belgium, and Canada, the MBA degree programs at the public accredited schools are similar to those offered in the Anglo-Saxon countries. Most French Business Schools are accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles, which is an association of higher educational establishments outside the mainstream framework of the public education system.

Germany

Germany was one of the last western countries to adopt the MBA degree. In 1998, the Hochschulrahmengesetz (Higher Education Framework Act), a German federal law regulating higher education including the types of degrees offered, was modified to permit German universities to offer master's degrees. The traditional German degree in business administration was the Diplom in Betriebswirtschaft (Diplom-Kaufmann; Master's degree equivalent) but since 1999, bachelor's and master's degrees have gradually replaced the traditional degrees due to the Bologna process. Today most German business schools offer the MBA. Most German states require that MBA degrees have to be accredited by one of the six agencies officially recognized by the German Akkreditierungsrat (accreditation council), the German counterpart to the American CHEA. The busiest of these six agencies (in respect to MBA degrees) is the Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation (FIBAA). All universities themselves have to be institutionally accredited by the state (staatlich anerkannt).

Italy

Italian MBAs programs at public accredited schools are similar to those offered elsewhere in Europe. Italian Business Schools are accredited by EQUIS and by ASFOR.

Poland

There are several MBA programs offered in Poland. Some of these are run as partnerships with American or Canadian Universities. Others rely on their own faculty and enrich their courses by inviting visiting lecturers. Several MBA programs in Poland are also offered also in English.

Portugal

Several business schools offer highly ranked MBA programs in Portugal. Portuguese MBA programs are increasingly internationally oriented, being taught in English.

Spain

Spain has a long history in offering MBA programs with three MBA programs frequently being ranked in the Top 25 worldwide by several international rankings. Spanish MBAs belong to the most cultural diverse ones in the world and are taught in English (while IE Business School also offers an additional Spanish Track). The most popular MBAs in Spain are from IE Business School, IESE and ESADE.

Switzerland

There are several schools in Switzerland that offer an MBA as full-time, part-time and executive education programs. Some business schools that offer MBA programs with specializations such as Finance and Healthcare, technology management, and others. As a country with 4 different national languages (German, French, Italian and Romansh),[34] Switzerland offers most of its programs in English to attract international students to the country.

Ukraine

Recently MBA programs appeared in Ukraine where there are now about twenty schools of business offering a variety of MBA programs. Three of these are subsidiaries of European schools of business, while the remaining institutions are independent. Ukrainian MBA programs are concentrated mainly on particulars of business and management in Ukraine. For example, 2/3 of all case studies are based on real conditions of Ukrainian companies.[35]

United Kingdom

The UK-based Association of MBAs (AMBA) was established in 1967 and is an active advocate for MBA degrees. The association's accreditation service is internationally recognised for all MBA, DBA and Masters in Business and Management (MBM) programmes. AMBA also offer the only professional membership association for MBA students and graduates. UK MBA programmes typically consist of a set number of taught courses plus a dissertation or project.

Africa

The Financial Times in its Executive Education Rankings for 2012 included 5 African business schools.

Morocco

MBA programs are offered in many public and private universities, like EHTP, HEM and ESCA

Nigeria

Business schools administered as colleges within the traditional universities offer a variety of MBA programs. In addition, a few standalone business schools allied with foreign business schools exist.

South Africa

See also: List of business schools in South Africa and League tables of South African business schools
In 2004 South Africa’s Council on Higher Education (CHE) completed an extensive re-accreditation of MBA degrees offered in the country.[citation needed]

Ghana

Business schools of the traditional universities run a variety of MBA programs. In addition, foreign accredited institutions offer MBA degrees by distance learning in Ghana.

Kenya

See also: Education in Kenya
MBA programs are offered in many public and private universities.
Students choose to specialize in one of the following areas: Accounting, Finance, Entrepreneurship, Insurance and Human Resources. The course takes 4 semesters of about 4 months each.

Asia

Main article: List of business schools in Asia
International MBA programs are acquiring brand value in Asia. For example, while a foreign MBA is still preferred in the Philippines, many students are now studying at one of many "Global MBA" English language programs being offered. English-only MBA programs are also offered in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. For international students who want a different experience, many Asian programs offer scholarships and discounted tuition to encourage an international environment in the classroom.
Rankings have been published for Asia Pacific schools by the magazine Asia Inc. which is a regional business magazine with distribution worldwide. The importance of MBA education in China has risen, too.[36]

Bangladesh

Bangladesh was one of the first countries in Asia to offer MBA degree. There are now more than 50 business schools in Bangladesh offering the MBA, predominantly targeting graduates without any work experience. Most MBAs are two years full-time. There is little use of GMAT. The Business Schools conduct their own admission tests instead. Classes are taught in English.

India

There are many business schools and colleges in India offering two-year MBA or PGDM programs accredited by AICTE or UGC. The students are a mix of fresh graduates as well as with experience and get either at public or private schools depending on entrance examinations. Typically programs offer full-time, part-time and executive education programs.
The premier institutes in India, the Indian Institutes of Management, however offer post graduate diploma in management. Diplomas are awarded by IIMs because of an archaic Indian law which says that only universities can award degrees. IIMs are not considered universities since they were created by a special decree of the Indian parliament to increase management talent in India. Indian Institutes of Management are also unique in that they offer rigorous and intensive 1 year full-time MBA programs for graduates with approx. 5 years or more of work experience and call them as Executive full-time MBA programs. IIMs also offer 2 year full-time programs which are primarily aimed at fresh graduates and those with 2–3 years of work experience. Both the 2 year and 1 year full-time programs are considered on par with other regular MBA courses delivered from schools like Insead, IMD and Harvard and enjoy excellent credibility in the APAC region.

Japan

In Japan, the concept of an MBA is still not considered mainstream as traditional companies still perceive that knowledge and learning with respect to business and management can only be effectively gained through experience and not within a classroom. In fact, some companies have been known place recent MBA recipients in unrelated fields, or try to re-acclimate their Japanese employees who have spent years overseas earning the degree. As a consequence, academic institutions in Japan are attempting to reinvent the perception of the MBA degree, by taking into account the local corporate culture.[37] Globis University Graduate School of Management is considered as a significant indicator to the acceptance of the MBA system in Japan.[38]

Pakistan

Pakistan first offered an MBA program outside the United States in 1955 in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania. Now in Pakistan, there are 87 Universities/Institutes which are recognized by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, offering MBA programs to students and professionals.[citation needed]

Australia

Main article: List of business schools in Australia
In Australia, 42 Australian business schools offer the MBA degree. Universities differentiate themselves by gaining international accreditation and focusing on national and international rankings. Most MBAs are one to two years full-time. There is little use of GMAT, and instead each educational institution specifies its own requirements, which normally entails several years of management-level work experience as well as proven academic skills.
Ratings for Australian MBAs are carried out by the Graduate Management Association of Australia, which publishes an annual Australian MBA Star Ratings.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, most universities offer MBA classes, typically through part-time arrangement or evening classes. There is one university in Dunedin, Otago, that offers full-time classes conducted on-campus in the day, complete with a suite of career enhancement activities. Entry to this program requires GMAT, work experience and an undergraduate degree as well as interview with a panel. Many MBA programs are accredited including this full-time program.

Program rankings

See also: List of United States business school rankings, Australian MBA Star Ratings and Rankings of business schools in South Africa
As MBA programs proliferated over time, differences in the quality of schools, faculty, and course offerings became evident. As a means of establishing criteria to assess quality among different MBA programs, a variety of publications began compiling program information and ranking quality. Different methods of varying validity were used. The Gourman Report, which ran from 1967 until 1997, did not disclose criteria or ranking methods,[39] and these reports were criticized for reporting statistically impossible data, such as no ties among schools, narrow gaps in scores with no variation in gap widths, and ranks of nonexistent departments.[40] In 1977 The Carter Report published rankings of MBA programs based on the number of academic articles published by faculty. Also in 1977, the Ladd & Lipset Survey relied on opinion surveys of business school faculty as the basis for rankings, and MBA Magazine ranked schools based on votes cast by business school deans.[41]
Most recently, publications such as US News & World Report, Business Week, Financial Times, The Economist, the Wall Street Journal and Forbes publish rankings of selected MBA programs. Often a school's rank will vary significantly across publications, as the methodology used to create the ranks is different among each publication. The U.S. News & World Report ranking incorporates responses from deans, program directors, and senior faculty about the academic quality of their programs as well as the opinions of hiring professionals. The ranking is calculated through a weighted formula of quality assessment (40%), placement success (35%), and student selectivity (25%).[42] The Business Week rankings are similarly based on student surveys, a survey of corporate recruiters, and an intellectual capital rating.[43] Financial Times incorporates criteria including survey responses from alumni who graduated three years prior to the ranking and information from business schools. Salary and employment statistics are weighted heavily.[44] Rankings by the Economist Intelligence Unit and published in The Economist result from surveys administered to business schools (80%) and to students and recent graduates (20%). Ranking criteria includes GMAT scores, employment and salary statistics, class options, and student body demographics.[45] Although the Wall Street Journal stopped ranking full-time MBA programs in 2007, its ranking are based on skill and behavioral development that may predict career success, such as social skills, teamwork orientation, ethics, and analytic and problem-solving abilities.[46] In contrast to the aforementioned rankings, the Forbes MBA ranking considers only the return of investment five years after graduation. MBA alumni are asked about their salary, the tuition fees of their MBA program and other direct costs as well as opportunity costs involved. Based on this data, a final "5-year gain" is calculated and determines the MBA ranking position.[47]
An often overlooked differentiator among MBA rankings are the weights attributed to the participating groups and their answers. At first glance, for instance, the Financial Times Global MBA Ranking seems to provide more emphasis on the opinion of schools' representatives than on alumni: Schools provide data for 11 out of 20 criteria whereas alumni only contribute to 8 criteria. The answers of the alumni, however, are weighted by 59 percent whereas the schools' answers are weighted only by 31 percent. Hence, the ranking strongly builds on the opinion of alumni. In contrast, The Economist MBA Ranking primarily relies on the data provided by business schools and the Bloomberg Business week MBA Rankings equally emphasizes the opinion of alumni and corporate recruiters.[48]
Other rankings base methodologies on attributes other than standardized test scores, salary of graduates, and recruiter opinions. The Beyond Grey Pinstripes ranking, published by the Aspen Institute is based on the integration of social and environmental stewardship into university curriculum and faculty research. Rankings are calculated on the amount of sustainability coursework made available to students (20%), amount of student exposure to relevant material (25%), amount of coursework focused on stewardship by for-profit corporations (30%), and relevant faculty research (25%).[49] The 2011 survey and ranking include data from 150 universities.[50] The Quacquarelli Symonds QS Global 200 Business Schools Report compiles regional rankings of business schools around the world. Ranks are calculated using a two-year moving average of points assigned by employers who hire MBA graduates.[51] Since 2005, the UT-Dallas Top 100 Business School Research Rankings ranks business schools on the research faculty publish, not unlike The Carter Report of the past.[52]
The ranking of MBA programs has been discussed in articles and on academic Web sites.[53] Critics of ranking methodologies maintain that any published rankings should be viewed with caution for the following reasons:[54]
  • Rankings limit the population size to a small number of MBA programs and ignore the majority of schools, many with excellent offerings.
  • The ranking methods may be subject to biases and statistically flawed methodologies (especially for methods relying on subjective interviews of hiring managers).
  • The same list of schools appears in each ranking with some variation in ranks, so a school ranked as number 1 in one list may be number 17 in another list.
  • Rankings tend to concentrate on the school itself, but some schools offer MBA programs of different qualities (e.g. a school may use highly reputable faculty to teach a daytime program, and use adjunct faculty in its evening program).
  • A high rank in a national publication tends to become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
  • Some leading business schools including Harvard, INSEAD, Wharton and Sloan provide limited cooperation with certain ranking publications due to their perception that rankings are misused.[55]
One study found that objectively ranking MBA programs by a combination of graduates' starting salaries and average student GMAT score can reasonably duplicate the top 20 list of the national publications.[54] The study concluded that a truly objective ranking would be individualized to the needs of each prospective student.[56] National publications have recognized the value of rankings against different criteria, and now offer lists ranked different ways: by salary, GMAT score of students, selectivity, and so forth. Other publications have produced “rankings of the rankings”, which coalesce and summarize the findings of multiple independent rankings.[57][58] While useful, these rankings have yet to meet the critique that rankings are not tailored to individual needs, that they use an incomplete population of schools, may fail to distinguish between the different MBA program types offered by each school, or rely on subjective interviews.

Criticism

The Financial crisis of 2007–2010 raised questions about the value and content of business school programs. Graduates reportedly tend to go into finance after receiving their degrees.[59] As financial professionals are widely seen as responsible for the global economic meltdown, anecdotal evidence suggests new graduates are choosing different career paths.[60]
Deans at top business schools have acknowledged that media and public perception of the MBA degree shifted as a result of the financial crisis.[61] Articles have been written about public perceptions of the crisis, ranging from schools' acknowledgment of issues with the training students receive[59][61] to criticisms of the MBA's role in society.[62]

See also

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Related graduate business degrees

Executive

Doctoral

Accreditation agencies

References

  1. Tuck School of Business | History. Tuck.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-26.
  2. Donald Stabile (1 January 2007). Economics, Competition and Academia: An Intellectual History of Sophism Versus Virtue. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-1-84720-716-6.
  3. Kaplan, Andreas (2014) European management and European business schools: Insights from the history of business schools, European Management Journal, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2014.03.006
  4. History - About Us - Harvard Business School. Hbs.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-26.
  5. http://v2.cba.ua.edu/giving/hall_of_fame/77LB.html
  6. http://cba.ua.edu/about/history/
  7. Key Facts | The University of Chicago Booth School of Business. Chicagobooth.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-26.
  8. International Business School & MBA Programs | Thunderbird School of Global Management. Thunderbird.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-26.
  9. Richard Ivey School of Business page showing awarding of first MBA in 1950, one year ahead of the University of Pretoria's claim
  10. University of Pretoria page claiming to have awarded the first MBA outside of America
  11. [1]
  12. Insead MBA
  13. "Rollins information".
  14. McIntyre, John R. and Ilan Alon, eds. (2005), Business and Management Education in Transitioning and Developing Countries: A Handbook, Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.
  15. Differences in MBA accrediting bodies mail.iacbe.org Accreditation FAQs Retrieved 3 February 2014
  16. Programmatic Accrediting Organizations 2008–2009
  17. Koenig, Ann; Lofstad, Rolf (18 September 2004). "Higher Education Accreditation in the United States" (PDF). EAIE Conference.
  18. de l’Etraz, Paris (1 November 2009). "What Can an Online Program Do for You?". BizEd Magazine.
  19. Karen Hebert-Maccaro (8 September 2011). "Blended MBA Programs: An Optimized Form of Learning". Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
  20. Ward, Barabara (31 July 2009). "GRE: Wharton joins the club". MBA Channel.
  21. "Why You Should Work Before Pursuing an MBA". Bangalorean. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  22. MBAapplicant.com (31 July 2009). "Number 5 – YOUR WORK EXPERIENCE:". MBA Applicant.com.
  23. SMU Cox (19 January 2010). "Part Time MBA Programs – Side By Side Comparison". SMU Cox School of Business.
  24. See: GMAC's Curriculum and Course Selection.
  25. See: AACSB’s Standard 15: Management of Curricula; AMBA’s New Accreditation Criteria; ETF's Major Field Test for the MBA.
  26. Executive MBA (EMBA) vs. Traditional MBA, rutgers.edu.sg
  27. See for example: "The HBS case-method", hbs.edu; "The Chicago Approach", chicagobooth.edu; "Practical Learning", jbs.cam.ac.uk; "Academic Experience", gsb.stanford.edu.
  28. Is the MBA Case Method Passé? forbes.com
  29. Peter Kangis and Robert Carman. Research, Knowledge and Method: the purpose and role of MBA dissertation, The International Journal of Management Education, Vol 1 No 2.
  30. MBA degree-guide, degree.net
  31. "Kaplan A.: European Management and European Business Schools: Insights from the History of Business Schools, European Management Journal, 2014".
  32. Historia de la Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Icade.es. Retrieved on 2013-07-26.
  33. Our history - Vlerick Business School. Vlerick.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-26.
  34. [2]. SwissInfo.ch Retrieved on 15 may 2014.
  35. MBA strategy in Ukraine
  36. Alon, Ilan and John R. McIntyre, eds. (2005), Business and Management Education in China: Transition, Pedagogy and Training, Singapore: World Scientific.
  37. The New York Times (24 November 2010). "M.B.A.s in Japan Struggle for Respect". The New York Times.
  38. "Japan's Continued Retreat From U.S. Classrooms". Forbes. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
  39. Selingo, Jeffrey. A Self-Published College Guide Goes Big-Time, and Educators Cry Foul. Chronicle of Higher Education (7 November 1997).
  40. Bedeian, Arthur G. Caveat Emptor: The Gourman Report. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist (June 2002).
  41. Schatz, Martin; Crummer, Roy E. (1993). "What's Wrong With MBA Ranking Surveys?". Management Research News 16 (7): 15–18. doi:10.1108/eb028322. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  42. "Business Methodology". U.S. News & World Report. L.P. Retrieved 18 December 2007.
  43. "MBA Rankings: Updated October 2006". BusinessWeek.com. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Retrieved 18 December 2007.
  44. Milton, Ursula (29 January 2007). "How to read the rankings: How the raw data are processed". The Financial Times Ltd. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
  45. "Rankings methodology". The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited. Retrieved 19 December 2007.
  46. "How the Rankings were Compiled". The Wall Street Journal. 16 September 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  47. "Forbes 'The Best Business Schools'". 3 August 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  48. "Comparison of fulltime MBA Rankings". 15 October 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
  49. "Methodology". Beyond Grey Pinstripes. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
  50. Samuelson, Judy (Summer 2011). "The Business of Education: Why change-minded MBA candidates turn to the Institute before they pick a business school". The Aspen Idea: 66–67. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
  51. "Global Business Schools Report Methodology".
  52. Mahajan-Bansal, Neelima. "Does The World Need Another B-School Ranking?". Poets & Quants. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  53. "Caution and Controversy". University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved 6 September 2005.
  54. Schatz, Martin; Crummer, Roy E. (1993). "What's Wrong with MBA Ranking Surveys?". Management Research News 16 (7): 15–18. doi:10.1108/eb028322.
  55. Hemel, Daniel J (12 April 2004). "HBS Blocks Media Access to Students". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 29 January 2008.
  56. The Official MBA Guide uses this approach, allowing researchers to rank a large population of MBA programs based on a range of criteria and combinations.
  57. Milton, Ursula (29 January 2007). "How to read the rankings: How the raw data are processed". The Financial Times. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  58. Byrne, John A. "Our MBA Ranking of the Top 50 Business Schools in the U.S.". Poets & Quants. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  59. Holland, Kelley (14 March 2009). "Is It Time to Retrain B-Schools?". Th York Times.
  60. Stossel, John (19 June 2009). "The New Normal". 20/20 (ABC News).
  61. Bradshaw, Della (18 June 2009). "Deans fight crisis fires with MBA overhaul". Financial Times.
  62. Stewart, Matthew (25 March 2009). "RIP, MBA". Slate.

External links

Wikiversity has learning materials about Master of Business Administration
This page was last modified on 17 May 2014
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Master of Business Administration - Wikipedia, the free ...

Nonprofit organization

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A nonprofit organization (NPO) or not-for-profit organization is an organization that uses surplus revenues to achieve its goals rather than distributing them as profit or dividends.[1][2]
While not-for-profit organizations are permitted to generate surplus revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion, or plans.[3] NPOs have controlling members or boards. Many have paid staff including management, while others employ unpaid volunteers and even executives who work with or without compensation (occasionally nominal).[4] Where there is a token fee, in general, it is used to meet legal requirements for establishing a contract between the executive and the organization.
Designation as a nonprofit does not mean that the organization does not intend to make a profit, but rather that the organization has no owners and that the funds realized in the operation of the organization will not be used to benefit any owners. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted.

Objectives and goals

Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization; they may be organized as a not-for-profit corporation or as a trust, a cooperative, or they exist informally. A very similar type of organization termed a supporting organization operates like a foundation, but they are more complicated to administer, hold more favorable tax status and are restricted in the public charities they support. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, but in terms of giving value to the groups of people they administer to.[5]

Functions

NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. For legal classification, there are, nevertheless, some elements of importance:
  • Economic activity.
  • Supervision and management provisions.
  • Representation.
  • Accountability and auditing provisions.
  • Provisions for the amendment of the statutes or articles of incorporation.
  • Provisions for the dissolution of the entity.
  • Tax status of corporate and private donors.
  • Tax status of the foundation.
Some of the above must be, in most jurisdictions, expressed in the charter of establishment. Others may be provided by the supervising authority at each particular jurisdiction.
While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose.
Most countries have laws which regulate the establishment and management of NPOs, and which require compliance with corporate governance regimes. Most larger organizations are required to publish their financial reports detailing their income and expenditure publicly. In many aspects they are similar to corporate business entities though there are often significant differences. Both not-for-profit and for-profit corporate entities must have board members, steering committee members, or trustees who owe the organization a fiduciary duty of loyalty and trust. A notable exception to this involves churches, which are often not required to disclose finances to anyone, including church members.

Formation and structure

In the United States, nonprofit organizations are formed by filing bylaws and/or articles of incorporation in the state in which they expect to operate. The act of incorporating creates a legal entity enabling the organization to be treated as a corporation by law and to enter into business dealings, form contracts, and own property as any other individual or for-profit corporation may do.
Nonprofits can have members but many do not. The nonprofit may also be a trust or association of members. The organization may be controlled by its members who elect the Board of Directors, Board of Governors or Board of Trustees. A nonprofit may have a delegate structure to allow for the representation of groups or corporations as members. Alternatively, it may be a non-membership organization and the board of directors may elect its own successors.
The two major types of nonprofit organization are membership and board-only. A membership organization elects the board and has regular meetings and power to amend the bylaws. A board-only organization typically has a self-selected board, and a membership whose powers are limited to those delegated to it by the board. A board-only organization's bylaws may even state that the organization does not have any membership, although the organization's literature may refer to its donors as "members"; examples of such organizations are Fairvote[6][7] and the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws.[8] The Model Nonprofit Corporation Act imposes many complexities and requirements on membership decision-making.[citation needed] Accordingly, many organizations, such as Wikimedia,[9] have formed board-only structures. The National Association of Parliamentarians has generated concerns about the implications of this trend for the future of openness, accountability, and understanding of public concerns in nonprofit organizations. Specifically, they note that nonprofit organizations, unlike business corporations, are not subject to market discipline for products and shareholder discipline of their capital; therefore, without membership control of major decisions such as election of the board, there are few inherent safeguards against abuse.[10][11] A rebuttal to this might be that as nonprofit organizations grow and seek larger donations, the degree of scrutiny increases, including expectations of audited financial statements.[12]

Tax exemption

In many countries, nonprofits may apply for tax exempt status, so that the organization itself may be exempt from income tax and other taxes. In the United States, to be exempt from federal income taxes the organization must meet the requirements set forth by the Internal Revenue Service.[13]

Australia

In Australia, nonprofit organizations are classified as voluntary associations, co-operative societies, incorporated associations, not-for-profit companies, and trusts. A nonprofit organisation in Australia can have a number of legal formats depending on the needs and activities of the organization. As a legal entity, the organization may be a co-operative society, a company limited by guarantee, an incorporated association or society (by the Associations Incorporation Act 1985) or an incorporated association or council by the Commonwealth Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976.[14]
In Australia, non-profit organisations are normally established in one of three ways: companies, trusts and incorporated associations. However, incorporated associations are specifically for organisations that are going to operate only within one Australian state. Non-profit organisations seeking to establish in Australia, may consider starting as a company or as a trust.[15]

Belgium

By Belgian law, there are several kinds of nonprofit organisations:
These three kinds of nonprofit organisations are in contrast to a fourth:

Canada

Canada allows nonprofits to be incorporated or unincorporated. Nonprofits may incorporate either federally, under Part II of the Canada Business Corporations Act or under provincial legislation. Many of the governing Acts for Canadian nonprofits date to the early 1900s, meaning that nonprofit legislation has not kept pace with legislation that governs for-profit corporations; particularly with regards to corporate governance. Federal, and in some provinces (such as Ontario), incorporation is by way of Letters Patent, and any change to the Letters Patent (even a simple name change) requires formal approval by the appropriate government, as do by-law changes. Other provinces (such as Alberta) permit incorporation as of right, by the filing of Articles of Incorporation or Articles of Association.
During 2009, the federal government enacted new legislation repealing the Canada Corporations Act, Part II - the Canada Not-for-Profit Corporations Act. This Act was last amended on October 10, 2011 and the act was current till March 4, 2013.[16] It allows for incorporation as of right, by Articles of Incorporation; does away with the ultra vires doctrine for nonprofits; establishes them as legal persons; and substantially updates the governance provisions for nonprofits. Ontario also overhauled its legislation, adopting the Ontario Not-for-Profit Corporations Act during 2010; pending the outcome of an anticipated election during October 2011,[dated info] the new Act is expected to be in effect as of July 1, 2013.
Canada also permits a variety of charities (including public and private foundations). Charitable status is granted by the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) upon application by a nonprofit; charities are allowed to issue income tax receipts to donors, must spend a certain percentage of their assets (including cash, investments and fixed assets) and file annual reports in order to maintain their charitable status. In determining whether an organization can become a charity, CRA applies a common law test to its stated objects and activities. These must be:
  • The relief of poverty;
  • The advancement of education;
  • The advancement of religion; or
  • certain other purposes that benefit the community in a way the courts have said is charitable[17]
Charities are not permitted to engage in political activity; doing so may result in the revocation of charitable status.

Finland

In Finland, "rekisteröity yhdistys", given the abbreviation ry, denotes a registered association. This is done at a cost of 100 Euro. The association is required by law to keep a list of members. It must also hold an AGM and at least 3 members are required to initiate it, a secretary, chairperson and treasurer being the usual format.

France

In France, the nonprofits are called association. They are based on a law voted the 1st of July 1901. As a consequence, the nonprofits are also called association loi 1901.
A nonprofits can be created by 2 people in order to accomplish a common goal, whatever it is. The association can have industrial and/or commercial activities but the members cannot get any profit from these activities. Thereby, worker's unions and political parties can be organised from this law.
In 2008, the national statistic institute (INSEE) counted that there are more than 1 million of these associations in the country, about 16 millions people older than 16 are members of a nonprofit in France, that to say a third or the population. The nonprofits employ 1.6 million people and 8 millions are volunteers for them.[18]
This law is also relevant in a big part of former French colonies, particularly in Africa.

Hong Kong

The Hong Kong Company Registry provides a memorandum of procedure for applying to Registrar of Companies for a Licence under Section 21 of the Companies Ordinance (Cap.32) for a limited company for the purpose of promoting commerce, art, science, religion, charity, or any other useful object.[19][20]

India

In India, NPOs are known commonly as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).[21]
They can be registered in four ways:
  1. Trust
  2. Society
  3. Section-25 Company
  4. Special Licensing
Registration can be done with the Registrar of Companies(RoC).
The following laws or Constitutional Articles of the Republic of India are relevant to the NGOs:
  • Articles 19(1)(c) and 30 of the Constitution of India
  • Income Tax Act, 1961
  • Public Trusts Acts of various states
  • Societies Registration Act, 1860
  • Section 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1956
  • Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 1976

Ireland

The Irish Nonprofits Database was created by Irish Nonprofits Knowledge Exchange (INKEx) to act as a repository for regulatory and voluntarily disclosed information about Irish public benefit nonprofits. The database lists more than 10,000 not for profit organisations in Ireland. INKEx is currently looking for Government funding to continue to provide the service and maintain the accuracy of the database.

Japan

In Japan, an NPO is any citizen's group that serves the public interest and does not produce a profit for its members. NPOs are given corporate status to assist them in conducting business transactions. As of February 2011, there were 41,600 NPOs in Japan. Two hundred of NPOs were given tax-deductible status by the government which meant that only contributions to those organization were tax deductible for the contributors.[22]

Russia

Russian law contains many legal forms of NCOs (non-commercial organizations), resulting in a complex and often contradictory regulatory framework. The primary requirements are that NCOs, whatever their type, do not have the generation of profit as their primary objective and do not distribute any such profit among their participants (Article 50(1), Civil Code). Most commonly there are five forms of NCOs:
  1. Public associations - A public association is the form most comparable to an "association" as used in international parlance. A public association is a membership-based organization of individuals who associate on the basis of common interests and goals stipulated in the organization's charter.
  2. Foundations - Foundations are property-based, non-membership organizations created by individuals and/or legal persons to pursue social, charitable, cultural, educational, or other public benefit goals.
  3. Institutions - The institution (uchrezhdeniye) is a form that exists in Russia and several other countries of the Former Soviet Union. Like foundations, institutions do not have members. Unlike foundations, however, institutions do not acquire property rights in the property conveyed to them (Article 120, Civil Code, and Article 20, NCO Law). Moreover, the founders are liable for any obligations of the institution that it cannot meet on its own.
  4. Non-commercial partnerships - A non-commercial partnership (NP) (Article 8, NCO Law) is a membership organization pursuing activities for the mutual benefit of members. Therefore, assets which have been transferred to an NP as donations can be used for purposes other than those having public benefit.
  5. Autonomous non-commercial organizations - An autonomous non-commercial organization (ANO) (Article 10, NCO Law) is a non-membership organization undertaking services in the field of education, social policy, culture, etc., which in practice often generates income by providing its services for a fee.[23]

South Africa

In South Africa, charities issue a tax certificate when requested by donors which can be used as a tax deduction by the donor.[24] Non Profit Organisations are registered under the Non Profit Organisation Act. Trusts are registered by the Master of the High Court. Section 21 Companies are registered under the Company's Act. All are classified as Voluntary Organisations and all must be registered with the South Africa Revenue Services "SARS".[citation needed]

United Kingdom

In the UK, many nonprofit companies are incorporated as a company limited by guarantee. This means that the company does not have shares or shareholders, but it has the benefits of corporate status. This includes limited liability for its members and being able to enter into contracts and purchase property in its own name. The goals ("objects") of the company are defined in the Memorandum of Association when the company is formed. The profits of the company (also referred to as the trading surplus) must be invested in achieving these goals and not distributed to the company's members.[25]
Since the Companies Act 2006, nonprofit companies may be formed as a Community Interest Company (CIC). These are forms of company limited by guarantee or company limited by shares but with special conditions and are intended specifically to ensure that the profits and assets of the company are used for the public good, even when managed for (limited) profit.[26]
A charity is a nonprofit organisation that meets stricter criteria regarding its purpose and the method in which it makes decisions and reports its finances.[27] For example, a charity is generally not allowed to pay its Trustees. In England and Wales, charities may be registered with the Charity Commission.[28] In Scotland, the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator serves the same function. Other organizations which are classified as nonprofit organizations elsewhere, such as trade unions, are subject to separate regulations, and are not regarded as "charities" in the technical sense.

United States

For a United States analysis of this issue, see 501(c) and Charitable organization (United States).
After a nonprofit organization has been formed at the state level, the organization may seek recognition of tax exempt status with respect to U.S. federal income tax. That is done typically by applying to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), although statutory exemptions exist for limited types of nonprofit organizations. The IRS, after reviewing the application to ensure the organization meets the conditions to be recognized as a tax exempt organization (such as the purpose, limitations on spending, and internal safeguards for a charity), may issue an authorization letter to the nonprofit granting it tax exempt status for income tax payment, filing, and deductibility purposes. The exemption does not apply to other Federal taxes such as employment taxes. Additionally, a tax-exempt organization must pay federal tax on income that is unrelated to their exempt purpose.[29] Failure to maintain operations in conformity to the laws may result in an organization losing its tax exempt status. Individual states and localities offer nonprofits exemptions from other taxes such as sales tax or property tax. Federal tax-exempt status does not guarantee exemption from state and local taxes, and vice versa. These exemptions generally have separate applications and their requirements may differ from the IRS requirements. Furthermore, even a tax exempt organization may be required to file annual financial reports (IRS Form 990) at the state and federal level. A tax exempt organization's 990 forms are required to be made available for public scrutiny.

Problems experienced by NPOs

Capacity building is an ongoing problem experienced by NPOs for a number of reasons. Most rely on external funding (government funds, grants from charitable foundations, direct donations) to maintain their operations and changes in these sources of revenue may influence the reliability or predictability with which the organization can hire and retain staff, sustain facilities, create programs, or maintain tax-exempt status. For example, a university that sells research to for-profit companies may have tax exemption problems. In addition, unreliable funding, long hours and low pay can result in employee retention problems. During 2009, the US government acknowledged this critical need by the inclusion of the Nonprofit Capacity Building Program in the Serve America Act. Further efforts to quantify the scope of the sector and propose policy solutions for community benefit were included in the Nonprofit Sector and Community Solutions Act, proposed during 2010.
Founder's syndrome is an issue organizations face as they grow. Dynamic founders with a strong vision of how to operate the project try to retain control of the organization, even as new employees or volunteers want to expand the project's scope or change policy.
Resource mismanagement is a particular problem with NPOs because the employees are not accountable to anybody with a direct stake in the organization. For example, an employee may start a new program without disclosing its complete liabilities. The employee may be rewarded for improving the NPO's reputation, making other employees happy, and attracting new donors. Liabilities promised on the full faith and credit of the organization but not recorded anywhere constitute accounting fraud. But even indirect liabilities negatively affect the financial sustainability of the NPO, and the NPO will have financial problems unless strict controls are instated.[30] Some commentators have also argued that receiving significant funding from large for-profit corporations can ultimately alter the NPO's functions.[31][32][33]

Articles of association (example)

Front building of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in Seattle
In the United States, two of the wealthiest nonprofit organizations are the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which has an endowment of $38 billion,[34] and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute originally funded by Hughes Aircraft [35] prior to divestiture, which has an endowment of approximately $14.8 billion. Outside the United States, another large NPO is the British Wellcome Trust, which is a "charity" by British usage. See: List of wealthiest foundations. Note that this assessment excludes universities, at least a few of which have assets in the tens of billions of dollars. For example; List of U.S. colleges and universities by endowment.
Measuring an NPO by its monetary size has obvious limitations, as the power and significance of NPOs are defined by more qualitative measurements such as effectiveness at performing charitable missions.
Some NPOs which are particularly well known, often for the charitable or social nature of their activities performed during a long period of time, include Amnesty International, Oxfam, Rotary International, Carnegie Corporation of New York, Nourishing USA, DEMIRA Deutsche Minenräumer (German Mine Clearers), FIDH International Federation for Human Rights, Goodwill Industries, United Way, ACORN (now defunct), Habitat for Humanity, Family Promise, Teach For America, the Red Cross and Red Crescent organizations, UNESCO, IEEE, INCOSE, World Wide Fund for Nature, Heifer International, Translators Without Borders and SOS Children's Villages.
However, there are also millions of smaller NPOs that provide social services and relief efforts to people throughout the world. There are more than 1.6 million NPOs in the United States alone, and millions more informal, community-based entities, which Frumkin and others consider part of the nonprofit sector.[36]
There are also examples, for instance in Ireland of NGO umbrella organisations bringing about a degree of self-regulation in the NGO sector.

Other information

Many NPOs often use the .org or .us (or the CCTLD of their respective country) or .edu top-level domain (TLD) when selecting a domain name to differentiate themselves from more commercial entities which typically use the .com space.
In the traditional domain noted in RFC 1591, .org is for "organizations that didn't fit anywhere else" in the naming system, which implies that it is the proper category for non-commercial organizations if they are not governmental, educational, or one of the other types with a specific TLD. It is not designated specifically for charitable organizations or any specific organizational or tax-law status, however; it encompasses anything that is not classifiable as another category. Currently, no restrictions are enforced on registration of .com or .org, so one can find organizations of all sorts in either of these domains, as well as other top-level domains including newer, more specific ones which may apply to particular sorts of organizations such as .museum for museums or .coop for cooperatives. Organizations might also register by the appropriate country code top-level domain for their country.

Conclusion

Instead of being defined by "non" words, some organizations are suggesting new, positive-sounding terminology to describe the sector. The term "civil society organization" (CSO) has been used by a growing number of organizations, such as the Center for the Study of Global Governance.[37] The term "citizen sector organization" (CSO) has also been advocated to describe the sector — as one of citizens, for citizens — by organizations such as Ashoka: Innovators for the Public.[38] A more broadly-applicable term, "Social Benefit Organization" (SBO) has been advocated for by organizations such as MiniDonations.[39] Advocates argue that these terms describe the sector in its own terms, without relying on terminology used for the government or business sectors. However, use of terminology by a nonprofit of self-descriptive language that is not legally compliant risks confusing the public about nonprofit abilities, capabilities and limitations.[40]
In some Spanish-language jurisdictions, nonprofit organizations are called "civil associations".

See also

References

  1. The Nonprofit Handbook: Everything You Need to Know to Start and Run Your Nonprofit Organization (Paperback), Gary M. Grobman, White Hat Communications, 2008.
  2. [1]
  3. "Publication 4220 (Rev. 8-2009)" (PDF). Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  4. Drucker, Peter (1989). "What Business Can Learn from Nonprofits". Harvard Business Review: 1-7.
  5. "Nonprofit Business Goals and Objectives". Retrieved 23 March 2013.
  6. FairVote - Board of Directors.
  7. FairVote - FAQs.
  8. NORML Board of Directors - NORML.
  9. "Bylaws". Wikimedia Foundation. 14 July 2010. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  10. Malamut, Michael E. and Blach, Thomas J. (2008). ABA Code Revision Raises Concerns for Democracy and Parliamentary Law in Nonprofits. National Parliamentarian, Volume 69, No. 1.
  11. Charity on Trial: What You Need to Know Before You Give / Doug White (2007) ISBN 1-56980-301-3.
  12. SSRN-Voluntary Disclosure in Nonprofit Organizations: an Exploratory Study by Bruce Behn, Delwyn DeVries, Jing Lin.
  13. "Applying for Exemption - Difference Between Nonprofit and Tax-Exempt Status". Irs.gov. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
  14. "Legal structures of nonprofit organisations in Australia". Ourcommunity.com.au. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
  15. David Ford, Emil Ford Lawyers, Guide to Establishing Non-Profit Organisations in Australia (Advocates for International Development, August 2012). http://a4id.org/sites/default/files/user/%5BA4ID%5D%20AustraliaNon-ProfitLawLegalGuide.pdf
  16. "Canada Not-for-profit Corporations Act". Status Of Canada. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
  17. "Charities and Giving; What is Charitable". Canada Revenue Agency. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
  18. Vie associative : 16 millions d’adhérents en 2008, INSEE, publication December 2010
  19. http://forum.hktdc.com/topic/2245/1/en/Non-profit-organisation-in-Hong-Kong.htm
  20. http://www.hkicpa.org.hk/APLUS/0704/44.pdf
  21. book keeping and accounting. govt.of maharashtra.
  22. Kamiya, Setsuko, "NPO tax status threatened by Diet split", Japan Times, 22 February 2011, p. 3.
  23. http://www.usig.org/countryinfo/russia.asp
  24. South African Charities.
  25. ""Company Limited by Guarantee", Small Firms Services Ltd". Sfsgo.com. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  26. "CIC regulator".
  27. "How to Start a Charity in the UK", Capterra.
  28. Charity Commissioners information page.
  29. "Special rules for unrelated business income tax". U.S. Internal Revenue Service. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
  30. Audit Guide for Small Nonprofit Organizations http://www.vscpa.com/content/Visitors/Nonprofit_Resources/Audit_Guide.aspx
  31. Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) NGO Performance and Accountability: Introduction and Overview. In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D., ed. 2002. The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd., Chapter 11.
  32. Brought to You by Wall Street, CORY MORNINGSTAR, CounterPunch, 2013.05.17
  33. The Climate Wealth Opportunists, CORY MORNINGSTAR, CounterPunch, 2014.03.14
  34. "Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Annual Report 2007 - 2006 Combined Financial Statements". Gatesfoundation.org. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
  35. Hughes after Howard / D.Kenneth Richardson (2011) ISBN 978-0-9708050-8-9.
  36. Frumkin, Peter (2005). On Being Nonprofit: A Conceptual Primer. Harvard University Press.
  37. :Glasius, Marlies, Mary Kaldor and Helmut Anheier (eds.) "Global Civil Society 2006/7". London: Sage, 2005.
  38. Drayton, W: "Words Matter". Alliance Magazine, Vol. 12/No.2, June 2007.
  39. Ramirez, Jr., L:"The Case for Social Benefit Organizations".MiniDonations.org Blog, February 2010.
  40. Alvarado, Elliott I.: "Nonprofit or Not-for-profit -- Which Are You?", page 6-7. Nonprofit World, Volume 18, Number 6, November/December 2000.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Non-profit organizations.
This page was last modified on 6 May 2014 at 01:04.

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